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COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAK. 



EASY LESSONS IN ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



ABRIDGED FROM THE OCTAVO EDITION 

OF THE 

•'ENGLIS]I LANGUAGE IN ITS ELEMENTS AND FORMB, ' 

WITH ArPKOmiATE EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



TO WlllCn IS ANNEXED 

A PARSER AND ANALYZER, 

WITH DIAGRAMS AND SUGGESTIVE PICTURES. 

IJrepareti tot ©enetal ffiJse tii ©amnion Schools. 
By WILLIAM C/ FOWLER, LL.D., 

LATE PROFESSOR OF RIIETORIO IN AMHERST COLLEQE. 



JVJSIV YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERii, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
I88I. 



By William C. Fowler, LL.D. -^ p- ^ 

^ Uj X 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN ITS ELEMENTS AND FORMS. 
With a History of its Origin and Development. Designed for use in 
Colleges and Schools. Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, Cloth, $1 75; 
Sheep, $2 12. 

II. 

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN ITS ELEMENTS AND FORMS. 
With a History of its Origin and Development. Abridged from the 
Octavo Edition. Designed for General Use in Schools and Families. 
12mo, Sheep, $130. 

III. 

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
Abridged from the Octavo Edition of the ^' English Language in its 
Elements and Forms." Designed for General Use in Common Schools. 
Revised and Enlarged. 16mo, Sheep, 53 cents. 

Published by HASPER & BROTHERS, Franklin Square, 
New York. 



• Sent by mail, postage-lree, on receipt of price. 



ttitered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight 
hundred and fifty-nine, by 

HARPER & BROTHERS, 

In the Olerit's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of 
New York. 



PREFACE. 



The author of this Elementary Grammar 
hereby announces important additions to it in 
the form of Exercises for the convenience of 
the pupils, and a Key for the convenience of 
the teacher. These additions have been care* 
fully prepared by Miss Anne 0. Webb, the 
distinguished principal of the Zane Street 
Grammar-school, Philadelphia. 

The Exercises are in all the Copies, the Key 
only in those which are intended for teachers. 

This Grammar has been prepared for use in 
Common Schools, in the hope that the teach- 
ers and committees who may be disposed to 
give it a fair trial will find it to be satisfactory, 
as well in its principles and rules as in the 
mode of their presentation. These principles, 
it is believed, are stated with logical accuracy, 
and distinctly illustrated by examples, both in 
the body of the work, and especially in the ex- 
ercises. Though well aware that there is no 
^^ royal road" to grammar, the author has en- 
deavored to make Etymology and Syntax so 



VI CONTENTS. 

SEC. PAGE I SEC, PAOB 

56. Forms for the Present Tense 58 63. Derivation of Auxiliary 

5T. Forms for the Past Tense . . 59| Verbs 66 

58. Forms for the Future Tense. 59 70. Conjugation of Auxiliary 

59. Forms for the Present Per- Verbs 69 

feet Tense . 60 71. The Verb Substantive 71 

60. Forms for the Past Perfect 72. Conjugation of the Verb 

Tense .^ ....60 Substantive 71 

61. Forms for the Future Per- 73. The Ancient Conjugation . . 75 

feet Tense 61j74. The Modern Conjugation ... 75 

62. Modes of the Verb 62 175. The Conjugation of the Mod- 

63. The Participles 64| ern Verb " To Love" 75 

64. Present Participle 64j76. Progressive Forms 81 

65. Past Participle 64|77. Emphatic Forms 82 

66. Conjugation 65j78. Interrogative Forms 82 

67. Auxiliary Verbs, with the (79. Irregular Verbs 83 

Office they perform 66,80. Derived Verbs 87 

68. Classification of Auxiliary 81. Reflective Verbs 88 

Verbs 66182. Defective Verbs 83 

CHAPTER VII. 

• THE ADVERB. 

83. The Adverb 89185. Classification of Adverbs ac- 

84. Comparison of Adverbs .... 90 1 cording as they modify. . . 90 

CHAPTER VIII. 

THE PREPOSITION. 

86. The Preposition 92187. A List of the Prepositions. . 93 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

S8. The Conjunction 94189. The Common Classification. 95 

CHAPTER X. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

90. The Interjection 96191. Etymological Analysis 96 



PART II. 

SYNTACTICAL FORMS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER L 

DEFINITIONS. 

92. Definitions 100194, Grammatical Predicate. . . 103 

93. Grammatical Subject 103 195. Figures of Syntax 104 

CHAPTER IL 

SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

96. Nominative Case 1071 99. Apposition Ill 

97. Possessive or Genitive Case 111 100. Promiscuous Exercises on 

98. Objective Case 114! Nouns 120 

CHAPTER in. 

SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

101. Syntax of the Adjective, 1102. Exercises in the Fyntax of 

with the two Uses. . . . . 121 ! the Adjective 123 



CONTENTS. 



Vll 



SEC. PAGE 

103. Syntax of Pronominal Ad- 

jectives, or Adjective 
Pronouns 125 

104. Syntax of Numeral Adjec- 

tives , 128 

105. Syntax of the Article 

"An" or "A'' 130 



SEC. PAGE 

106. Syntax of the Article 

♦*The" 133 

lOT. Promiscuous Exercises on 

the Adjective 136 

108. Promiscuous Examples of 
the proper and improper 
use of the Articles 137 



CHAPTER IV. 

SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. 



109. Personal Pronouns 138 

110. Syntax of the Word *'Self" 14T 

111. Demonstrative Pronouns. 149 

112. Relative Pronouns 150 



113. Interrogative Pronouns.. 157 

114. Indeterminate Pronouns. 157 

115. Reciprocal Pronouns with 

reciprocal Construction. 159 



CHAPTER V. 

SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



116. Concord 160 

117. The Verb 164 

118. " " 165 

119. ^' " 166 

120. Government of Verbs 167 

121. The Substantive Verb 109 

122. Syntax of the Infinitive 

Mode 170 



123. The Infinitive Mode 172 

124. The Imperative Mode. . . . 174 

125. The Subjunctive Mode. . . 175 

126. Syntax of the Tenses 176 

127. Syntax of Participles 178 

128. Participles, with the Cases 

in which they are put. . 179 

129. Certain Uses of the Verb. 182 



CHAPTER VI. 

SYNTAX OP THE ADVERB. 

130. Syntax of the Adverb 1841131. Correspondent Adverbs. . 187 

CHAPTER VII. 

132. SYNTAX OP THE PREPOSITION 188 

CHAPTER VIII. 

SYNTAX OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

i 137. Promiscuous Examples in 



133. Syntax of Conjunctions. . 193 

134. Interjections 196 

135. Ellipsis 196 

136. Syntactical Analysis 202 



Correct Syntax for Anal- 
ysis, according to pre- 
vious Rules 205 



PUNCTUATION. 



138. Definition 24"^ 

]3^. The Comma 245 

140. The Semicolon 251 

141. Tlie Colon 252 

14 '. The Period 254 

143. Note of Interrogation 25-1 

114. The Exclamation Point... 255 

]4"). The Parenthesis 255 

IV). Brackets 555 

147. The Dash 255 

148. The Caret 25G 

14 >. The Apostrophe ii;5G 



150. Mark of Accent 2.56 

151. A Hyphen 156 

152. Marks for Long Vowels 

and Short Vowels 256 

153. The Diaeresis 257 

151. The Paragraph 257 

155. The Section 257 

156. Quotation Marks 257 

157. The Index 25" 

15S. The Ellipsis 257 

15^. The Asterisk, etc 257 

IGO. Capital Letters 257 



ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 



ETYMOLOGICAL FORMS IN THE ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



DEFINITIONS. 

§ 1. Grammatical Etymology treats of 
the classification and inflection of words. 

Classification is the division of words into 
parts of speech. See § 2. 

Inflection is the change of form which 
verbs, nouns, adjectives, and adverbs undergo 
in order to express different relations. See § 
14. 

classification of the parts OF SPEECH. 

§ 2. I. A word which is the name of a per- 
son, place, or thing is called a Noun or Sub- 
stantive; as, Plato^ New York, virtue. 

II. A word which qualifies or limits a noun 



10 THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 

is called an Adjective ; as, " Wise men ;" 
" Vtriuoiis women;" ''Seven children;" -'This 
apple." For tlie Article see § 32. 

III. A word used instead ot a noun is called 
a Pronoun ; as, ^^/ went to London ;" ^' Thou 
hast done a good action ;" " He will return." 

IV. A word which expresses an assertion 
is called a Yerb ; as, ^' God is ;" ** The sun 
shines ;" " John struck Thomas." 

Y. A word which qualifies a verb or an ad- 
jective is called an Adverb ; as, ^' John struck 
Thomas rashly f *^The sun shines brightly f^ 
" He is more prudent than his neighbor." 

YI. A word which connects an object with 
a verb or an adjective is called a Preposi- 
tion; as, '^He went through New York;" 
"He belongs to no party;" "He is wise for 
himself." 

YIL A word which connects two sentences 
or like parts of sentences is called a Conjunc- 
tion; as, "John writes and Thomas reads;" 
" I will visit him ifh.Q desires it." 

YIII. A word which expresses sudden emo- 
tion of the mind, and is not in grammatical 
construction with a sentence, is called an In- 
terjection ; as, Ah I pshaw ! alas I 



THE KOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 11 



QUESTIONS. 

Of wbat does grammatical etymology treat? 

What is classification ? 

What is inflection ? 

What word is a noun ? 

What word is an adjective ? 

What word is a pronoun ? 

What word is a verb ? 

What word is an adverb ? 

What word is a preposition ? 

What word is a conjunction? 

What word is an interjection? 



CHAPTEE 11. 

THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

§ 8. A Noun is the name of a person, place, 
or thing ; as, Plato^ New YorJcj virtue. 

Or, a Noun or Substantive is a word which can by itself, 
with all finite verbs, form the subject of a proposition, and 
with the verb to be can form the predicate of a proposition ; 
as ''^ Man dies.*' In this simple proposition man is the sub- 
ject. *' Stand up; I also am a ?wa?j." In this proposition 
man with am is the predicate. 

A proposition is a sentence containing an assertion. A 
proposition has two parts : 1. The thing spoken of, called 
the Subject; 2. That which is said of it, called the Predicate. 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

§ 4. I. Proper Nouns are the names of in- 
dividual persons or things, and not of species ; 



12 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

as, John, Philadelphia. Proper nouns are com' 
paratively few in number. 

IL Common or Appellative Nouns are 
the names of a class of persons or tilings, or of 
an individual belonging to a class ; as, Man^ a 
man ; tree^ a tree, Man and tree are classes ; a 
man, a tree, are individuals, eacli belonging to 
a class. The following are common nouns : 

1. An Abstract Noun is the name of a simple quality, 
action, or condition considered independently of the sub- 
stance in which it inheres ; as, Wisdom, journey, brightness, 
friendship, oratory. Here we do not consider who has wis- 
dom, or who travels, or what is bright, or who is a friend. 

2. A Concrete Noun is the name of the substance, and 
of the quality, action, or condition which inheres in the 
substance ; as. The wise ; a traveler ; a friend ; London ; 
Cicero, 

3. A Collective Noun is a name which, in the singular 
number, denotes more than one ; as. An army ; a company, 

4. Correlative Nouns are names of objects which arc 
viewed as related to each other ; as. King and subject ; son 
and father, 

5. Participial Nouns are those which have the form of 
participles, but perform the office of nouns ; ac, Reading is 
instructive ; the writing is legible. Reading and writing are 
here abstract nouns. 

6. Diminutive Nouns are those which are derived from 
other nouns, and which express some diminution of the 
original meaning ; " as, Satchel from sack ; duckling from 
duck, 

7. Material Nouns are the names of materials, that is, 
of things which produce no idea of individuality, but only 
an aggregate notion ; as, Water, loam, milk. 

Other parts of speech, and even the letters of the alpha- 
bet, are treated as nouns when they are made the subject 
of a verb, or the object of a verb or proposition ; as, '* The 
learned testify ;" " The he^s and she^s will all be there ;" *' In 
that sentence the critic struck out on and introduced o/*;" 



THE JSrOUK OK SUBSTANTIVE. 13 

'' Q is in that word preferable to au ;" ** Mind your />'s and 
2*5;" ** Your ifi^ a mighty peace-maker." 

Proper Nouns in the plural number, or with an article 
prefixed, become common nouns ; as, *' The Howards ;^^ ''He 
is the Cicero of his age." The tQxva. proper is from being 
proper^ that is, peculiar to the individual bearing the name. 

Common Nouns, with the definite article prefixed, some- 
times become proper nouns ; Si^, The metropolis ; the park. 
The term common is from being common to every individual 
comprised in the class. The term appellative, from the Latin 
appellare, to call, is applied to common nouns because they 
are the names by which classes of objects are called. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are proper nouns, and what are com- 
mon nouns? 

What is an abstract noun, and what is a con- 
crete-noun? 

What is a collective noun, and what is a cor- 
relative noun ? 

What are participial nouns ? 

What are diminutive nouns, and what are 
material nouns ? 

In what case can the other parts of speech 
be made nouns ? 

In what cases do proper nouns become com- 
mon nouns? 

In what case do common nouns become 
proper nouns? 

EXEECISES. 

Which words are nouns in the following sen 
tences ? 

1. When the sun sets the stars shine in the 
sky. 



14 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

2. Honesty is the best policy. Virtue is its 
own reward. 

8. Away went Grilpin, and away went Gil- 
pin's hat and wig. 

4. In the month of June the birds sing 
sweetly among the branches of the trees. 

What nouns should be supplied in the follow- 
ing sentences ? 

1. There are twelve — in the year, seven — - 
in the week, sixty — in an hour. 

2. The generous — carried its rider safely. 

3. The patient — bows his neck to the yoke. 

4. The busy — gathers honey from flowers. 

5. The faithful — saved the life of his master. 

6. — was the discoverer of America. 
Mention three common nouns and three proper 

nouns. 



THE ATTRIBUTES OF NOUNS. 

§ 5. The Attributes of Nouns are Person, 
Gender, Number, and Case. A noun which 
the speaker applies to himself as speaker is of 
the FIRST person; as, *^I, Victoria^ Queen oi 'En- 
gland." A noun applied to the person spoken 
to is of the SECOND person ; as, " Thou child of 
mortality." A noun applied to a person or 
thing spoken of is of the third person ; as, 
^^ Exercise promotes health." 



THE KOUK OR SUBSTANTIVE. 



15 



GENDERS OF NOUNS. 

§ 6. Gender is a grammatical distinction in 
nouns expressing the natural distinction of sex. 
The word gender is from the French genre and 
the Latin genus^ and properly means hind. 

The Masculine Gender denotes the male 
sex ; as, A man^ a hoy. 

The Feminine Gender denotes the female 
sex ; as, A woman^ a girL 

The Neuter Gender denotes the absence 
of sex ; as, A chair ^ a table. 

Gender, in the English language, is expressed, 
I. By difference of termination. 



Masculine. 

Abbot, 


Feminine. 

Abbess. 


Masculine. 

Editor, 


Feminine. 

Editress. 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Elector, 


Electress. 


Adjutor, 


Adjutrix. 


Embassador, Embassadres& 


Administrator 


, Administratrix 


. Emperor, 


Empress. 


Adulterer, 


Adulteress. 


Enchanter, 


Enchantress. 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress. 


Executor, 


Executrix. 


Auditor, 


Auditress. 


Founder, 


Foundress. 


Augustus, 


Augusta. 


Gaffer, 


Gammer. 


Author, 


Authoress. 


Giant, 


Giantess. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


God, 


Goddess. 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress. 


Goodman, 


Goody. 


Carl, 


Carlin. 


Governor, 


Governess. 


Caterer, 


Cateress. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Chanter, 


Chantress. 


Heritor, 


Heritrix. 


Conductor, 


Conductress. 


Hero, 


Heroine. 


Count, 


Countess. 


Host, 


Hostess. 


Czar, 


Czarina. 


Hunter, 


Huntress. 


Dauphin, 


Dauphiness. 


Idolater, 


Idolatress. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Instructor, 


Instructress. 


Director, 


Directress. 


Inventor, 


Inventress. 


Don, 


Donna. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Duke, 


Duchess. 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine. 



16 



THE NOUK OR SUBSTANTIVE. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Lion, 


Lioness. 


Protector, 


Protectress. 


Margrave, 


Margravine. 


Shepherd, 


Shepherds '•»^. 


Marquis, 


Marchioness. 


Signor, 


Signora. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


Songster, 


Songstress 


Mayor, 


Mayoress. 


Sorcerer, 


Sorceress. 


Minister, 


Ministress. 


Sultan, 


^; Sultaness. 
'; Sultana. 


Monitor, 


Monitress. 


Negro, 


Negress. 


Tailor, 


Tailoress. 


Ogre, 


Ogress. 


Testator, 


Testatrix. 


Palsgrave, 


Palsgravine. 


Tiger, 


Tigress. 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Traitor, 


Traitress. 


Peer, 


Peeress. 


Tutor, 


Tutoress. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Tyrant, 


Tyranness. 


Porter, 


Portress. 


Victor, 


Victress. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 


Viscount, 


Viscountess. 


Prince, 


y^incess. 


Votary, 


Votress. 


Prior, 


Prioress. 


Widower, 


Widow. 


Prophet, 


Prophetess. 







These terminations are all of Norman descent, unknown 
to the ancient Saxons. 

In donna there is the Spanish, in heroine the Greek, in 
landgravine the German, in signora the Italian, in Augusta 
the Latin form. 

In some cases there is simply an addition to the mascu- 
line ; as, Prophet, prophetess. In other cases there is a change 
of some letter or letters from the masculine ; as, Porter, por- 
tress ; master, mistress. 

II. By distinct words. 



Masculine. 

Bachelor, 


Feminine. 

Maid, Spinster. 


Masculine. 

Friar, Monk, 


Feminine. 

Nun. 


Beau, 


Belle. 


Gander, 


Goose. 


Boar, 


Sow. 


Gentleman, 


Lady. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Hart, 


Roe. 


Brother, 


Sister. 


Horse, 


Mare. 


Buck, 


Doe. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Bull, 


Cow. 


Lad, 


Lass. 


Bullock, 


Heifer. 


Lord, 


Lady. 


Cock, 


Hen. 


Man, 


Woman. 


Colt, 


Filly. 


Milter, 


Spawner. 


Dog, 


Bitch. 


Nephew, 


Niece. 


Drake, 


Duck. 


Papa, 


Mamma. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Rake, 


Jilt. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Ram, 


Ewe. 



THE NOUN OE SUBSTANTIVE. 



17 



Masculine. 


Feminin». 


Masculine. 


Feminin*. 


Ruff, 


Reeve. 


Stag, 


Hind. 


Sir, 


Madam. 


Steer, 


Heifer. 


Sire, 


Madame. 


Swain, 


Nymph. 


Sire (a horse), Dam. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Sloven, 


Slut. 


Wizard, 


Witch. 


Son, 


Daughter. 






III. By Composition. 






Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bridegroom^ 


Bride. 


Male relations, 


Female relations. 


Buck-r&hhit^ 


Doe-rabbit. 


3fankind, 


Womankind. 


Coc/fc-sparrow, 


Hen-sparTow. 


il/aw-servant, 


Maid-serv&nt. 


Gentlema»i, 


GeiitleM«?7naw. 


Mermaw, 


Mermaid. 


He-be&r^ 


She-hear, 


Moor-cock., 


Moor-hen. 


jHe-goat, 


She-goat. 


Mr. Webster, 


Mrs. Webster. 


Jack-ass^ 


Ass. 


'Pesicock. 


Vesihen. 


Landlord, 


Landlady. 


Schoolmaster^ 


Schoolmistresl's. 


Male, 


Female. 


Serving-man., 


Serving-ivoman, 


Male chad, 


Female child. 


Tom-cat^ 


Cat. 



ADDITIONAL FACTS. 

§ 7. The names of males are masculine ; the names of 
females, feminine; as, John, Mary. 

1. Words which have the same termination for both 
masculine and feminine are said to be of the common gen- 
der ; as. Parent, guardian, cousin, student, botanist, witness, 
neighbor, servant, friend, 

2. Some words are used only in the feminine ; as, Laun- 
dress, seamstress, brunette, dowager, jointress, mantua-maker, 
miUiner, shrew, virago, syren, amazon, vixen, spinster, 

3. Some masculine words are, by extension, applied to 
the whole species ; as, Man, to denote the human race, fe- 
males as well as males. Some feminine words are, in like 
manner, used for the whole species ; as. Goose, duck, 

4. The words infant, child, involve so little of the idea of 
intelligence and of personality in them, and the sex being 
BO often unknown to the speaker, that they are not unfre- 
quently used in the neuter gender; as, *'The infant raised 
its loving hands to the cheek of its mother;" *'the child 
clung to the neck oiits mother." 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

What is gender, and what is the derivation 
of the term gender ? 

B 



18 THE N'OUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

How many genders are there, and what do 
they severally denote ? 

What are the three principal modes of ex- 
pressing gender? 

Of what gender are the names of males, and 
of what gender are the names of females ? 

What words have the same termination for 
both masculine and feminine, and of what gen- 
der are these words ? 

What words are used only in the femi- 
nine ? 

What masculine words are by extension ap- 
plied to the whole species, and also what fem- 
inine words are in like manner apphed to the 
whole species? 

What is said of the words infant, child ? 

Of what gender are each of the following nouns ? 

Baron, donna, negro, empress, widow, broth- 
er, father, lad, nymph, skate, coat, book, parent, 
friend, cousin. 

Mention six nouns of the masculine gender, 
six of the feminine, six of the neuter, and si:^ 
of the common gender. 

NUMBERS OF NOUNS. 

^ % 8. Number is the distinction between one 
and more than one^ usually expressed by some 
difference in termination. 

There are two ;aumbers, the singular and 

the PLURAL. 

The singular number denotes one object; as, 
JBook, pen, a man. 



THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 19 

The plural number denotes more than one ob- 
ject ; as, Boohs ^ pens^ the men, 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

§ 9. In most nouns, the plural number is, 
in the spoken language, formed from the sin- 
gular, by the addition of the sound of s in seal^ 
or of z in zeal^ or of that of the syllable ez ; as. 
Stack, stacks ; stag, stags ; stage, stag-es. 

I. The plural number of nouns is generally 
expressed in the written language by the ad- 
dition of s to the singular ; as. Chief, chiefs ; pin, 
pins ; hey, keys ; folio, folios ; muse, muses. 

Nouns in the spoken language ending with a 
sound which will not unite with that of s, add 
the sound of ez to express the plural ; as. Lens, 
lens-es ; hrush, hrush-es ; church, church-es ; box, 
. hox-es, 

II. In the WRITTEN language, nouns ending 
with s, sh, ch, x, z, add es to express the plural ; 
as. Lens, lens-es ; hrush, hrush-es ; church, church- 
es ; hox, hox-es; phiz, phiz-es. Nouns ending 
with ch pronounced like h form their plurals 
by the addition of s ; as. Monarch, monarchs. 

III. Nouns ending in y, after a consonant, 
change y into ies to form the plural ; as, Olory, 
glories ; vanity, vanities ; colloquy, colloquies. In 
the last word qu is treated as one consonant 



-20 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

Nouns ending in i generally form their plural by the ad- 
dition of es ; as, Alkali, alkalies ; houri, houries ; salmagundi^ 
salmayundies. 

"^ IV. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a con- 
sonant, form their plural in es; as, Hero^ heroes ; 
cargo ^ cargoes ; negro ^ negroes: es was probably 
used instead of s as an orthographical expedient 
to indicate the long sound of o. 

To this rule there are many exceptions ; as, Cantos, cen- 
tos, grottos, juntos, duodecimos, octavos, quartos, solos, tyros, 
mementos. Proper names form their plural by the addition 
of s ; as, Cato, Catos ; Scipio, Scipios. 

V. Certain nouns ending in / or fe form 
their plurals by changing / or fe into ves ; as, 
Loaf loaves ; wife^ wives, 

F in the singular is changed into v jn the plural, not 
from any difficulty in pronouncing the sound of y with that 
of s, since they are both surd consonants, but because./ in 
the Anglo-Saxon had, in the end of words, the power of v ; 
so that, instead of the plural form being changed, it is prob- 
able that the singular has been modified. Thus we have 
calf, calves; elf, elves; half, halves; leaf, leaves ; loaf, loaves; 
self, selves ; sheaf, sheaves ; thief , thieves ; wolf, wolves; and 
the Norman word beef, beeves; also life, lives; knife, knives; 
wife, wives. 

Other nouns ending in /and ye are regular in the forma- 
tion of the plural, namely, by the addition of s to the singu- 
lar ; as, Grief, griefs ; staff, staffs (and staves) ; tuif, turfs 
(and turves) ; strife, strifes ; fife, fifes, 

VI. Certain nouns form their plurals in m 
or n ; as, Ox^ oxen ; hose^ hos-en. Of this termin- 
ation we have remains in the words quoted ; 
and also in shoe^ shoon ; eye^ eyen or eyne; house^ 
housen ; ivelJce?^ 



THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 



21 



VII. Certain nouns form their plural by a 
CHANGE OF VOWEL; as, Maii^ men; woman,, 
women ; tooth,, teeth ; mouse,, m^ice ; louse^ lice ; 
goose,, geese; soiv, anciently sowen,, swine; cow, 
anciently cowen, hine, 

Mussuhnariy Ttircoinan, talisman, caiman, form their plu^ 
rals by the addition of s ; as, Mussulmans, Turcomans, talis* 
mans, caimans. They are not compounds of the word man, 

<5 10. Some nouns have two plurals, with different sig- 
nifications. 

Singular. Plural. 

Brother, | ^^amT^^rem^)^ \ ^^^*^^^" («^*^® same, society). 
Cow, Cows, Kine=cows (=cowen, en=ne). 

Die, Dies (for coining), Dice (for gaming) (es=ce). 

^'*' 1 ^'als), ^™'^'''''^"' \ Fish (the species). 
Fowl, Fowls, Fowl (the species). 

Genius, { ^^"is)!'"'" "^ \ <^«"" (imaginary spirite). 

Pea, < ^j V ^^ ^^^ ^~ > Pease (the species). 

Penny, Pennies (coins), Pence (the value) (es=ce>. 
Sow, Sows, Swine (the species) (en=ne). 

FOKEIGN WORDS. 

^11. I. Many foreign words retain their original ilyt- 
RALS, though the tendency of the language is to English 
forms. In respect to words in common use, this tendency 
should be encouraged. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. 

Arcanum, Arcana. Larva, 

Beau, Beaux. Madame, 

Crisis, Crises. Magus, 

Ephemeris, Ephemerides. Monsieur, 

Genus, Genera. Phenomenon, 



Hypothesis, Hypotheses. Vortex, 



Plural. 

Larvae. 

Mesdames. 

Magi. 

Messieurs. 

Phenomena 

Vortices. 



22 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

II. Certain foreign words have both an English plural 
and the original one. 

Singular. English Plural. Foreign Plural. 

Bandit (banditto); Bandits, Banditti. 

Cherub, Cherubs, Cherubim. 

Dogma, Dogmas, Dogmata. 

Memorandum, Memorandums, Memoranda. 

Rabbi, Rabbis, Rabbins. 

Seraph, Seraphs, Seraphim. 

Virtuoso, Virtuosos, Virtuosi. 

ADDITIONAL STATEMENTS. 

<J 12. I. Some nouns have no plural terminations: I. 
Those which denote things measured or weighed ; as. Rye, 
barley^ flax, flour, tallow, cider, gold, coffee, fennel. But, to 
express varieties, some have plural forms ; as, Sugar, sugars ; 
wine, wines, 2. Names of abstract qualities ; as, Harshness, 
prudence, meekness, sloth, decorum. To this there are some 
exceptions, as we say affinities, gravities, 

II. Some nouns denote plurality without a plural 
TERMINATION ; as, Horse, fl)ot, infantry, cavalry, pulse, cattle. 
Collective nouns in the singular form indicate plurality when 
they refer to the individuals; as, *' Ti^e committee were di^ 
vided,''^ In other cases they put on the plural form; as, 
The committees, 

III. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; 
as. Deer, sheep, trout, salmon, vermin, cannon, shot, head, sail, 
iveight ; as, Twenty weight. Cannon has sometimes the plural 
form, so has shot and hrick. Phrases like ''a twelvemonth" 
and *'a fortnight" are sometimes used. 

IV. Some nouns have the plural termination only ; 
as, Annals, antipodes, archives, ashes, assets, hitters, bowels, 
breeches, compasses, clothes, calends, customs, drawers, downs, 
dregs, eaves, embers, entrails, fetters, filings, forceps, goggles, 
goods, hatches, hose, ides, lees, matins, mallows, news, nippers, 
nones, nuptials, pincers, pinchers, pliers, reins, snuffers, shears, 
scissors, shambles, spectacles, staggers, thanks, thank is obso- 
lete, tidings, tongs, trowsers, tweezers, vespers, vitals, victuals, 
yellows. Letters in the sense of literature, and manners in 
the sense of behavior, may be added to the Ust. These, in 
construction, are used in the plural number. 

V. Some nouns have the plural form, but are often 

USED in construction IN THE SINGULAR NUMBER. Alms waS 



THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 23 

originally a noun singular, being a contraction of the Anglo- 
Saxon alniesse. The s belonged to the word just as s in 
cjoose does. ' '- This almesse should thou do of thy proper 
things." — Chaucer. Pains has the plural form; when pre- 
ceded by much^ it should have a singular verb. News has 
the plural form, but is used in the singular as well as in the 
plural. Odds is used in both the singular and plural. The 
same is true of gallows and bellows, though gallows has gal- 
lowses. Means is used in both the singular and the plural, 
though it has a singular form, mean, which is sometimes 
used. Billiards has the sense of a game containing a unity 
of idea. Riches seems to have been the French richesse, and 
therefore strictly no more plural than gentlenesse. Ethics, 
metaphysics, and other similar words, comprehending each 
the whole system of a particular science, do not convey the 
idea of parts or particular branches, but of a whole collect- 
ively, and hence seem to be treated as words belonging to 
the singular number ; they are also used as plurals. 

VI. Some nouns have sometimes the same form for 

BOTH NUMBERS, AND AT OTHER TIMES A REGULAR PLURAL 

FORM ; such are dozen, pair, brace, couple, score. *' He 
bought ten dozen ;^^ ''he bought them by dozens.''^ Under 
this description may be placed such words as youth, heathen, 
which, in a singular form, can enter into either a singular or 
plural construction, and yet can take a plural form ; as, A 
heathen rages ; the heathen rage ; the heathens rage. 

VII. "Compounds, consisting of two or more words con- 
nected by a hyphen, are generally composed either of two 
nouns, of which one is used in the sense of an adjective, as 
man-trap, where man is really an adjective ; or of a noun and 
adjective, as court-martial; or of a noun and some expression 
having the force of an adjective, sls father-in-law, where in-law 
has the force of an adjective as much as legal. In all these 
compounds the sign of the plural is added to that part of the 
compound which really constitute? the noun, whether at the 
end or not ; as, Man-traps, courts-martial, fathers-in-law, '* 
cousins german, outgoings, queen consorts, Te Deums, *' In 
forming the possessive case, the rule is different, the sign of 
the possessive being uniformly suflBxed to the compound ex- 
pression ; thus, father-in-law, •plural fathers-in-law, possessive 
father-in-law^ s.^^ — Hart's Grammar, p. 42. 

Compounds united without a hyphen follow the general 
rule ; as, Spoonfuls, overflowings. 

VIII. Proper nouns, when used in the plural number, 



24 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

follow the rule, for the most part, of common nouns ; as, 
Canada, the Canadas ; Carson, the Carsons ; Rogers, the JR.og^ 
erses ; Alleghany, the Alleghanies ; India changes the vowel, 
Indies. 

IX. Words used as mere words follow the general rule; 
as, The ins and the outs ; the yeas and the nays. 

X. When a title and a name are used together, some 
grammarians recommend that the title only have the plural 
form; as, the Misses Lyman; others, that both have the 
plural form ; as, the Misses Lymans ; and others, that the 
name only have the plural form ; as, the Miss Lymans. The 
last is the correct form if the two words are viewed as a 
compound term : the first, if they are viewed as in apposi- 
tion ; the second, if they are viewed as if in classical lan- 
guages. The last, namely, the Miss Lymans, is sanctioned 
by high authority. Use is divided. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is number, and how many numbers 
are there, and what do these numbers severally 
denote ? 

In the spoken language, how is the plural 
number formed? 

Give examples. 

In the written language, how is the plural 
number expressed ? 

Give examples. 

When nouns in the spoken language end 
with a sound that will not unite with that of 5, 
how is the plural number formed ? 

Give examples. 

When nouns in the written language end 
in 5, sh^ c\ X, or ^, how is the plural number 
formed? 

Give examples. 

How do nouns ending in 2/, after a conso- 
nant, form the plural ? 



THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 25 

Give examples. 

How do nouns ending in i form their plurals? 

Give an example. 

How do nouns ending in o, preceded by a 
consonant, form their plurals ? 

Give an example. 

How do certain nouns in / and fe form their 
plurals ; and how do other nouns in / and fe 
form their plurals ? 

Give an instance of a plural in n or en^ and 
of a plural formed by a change of vowel. 

Give an instance with different significations 
of two plurals of the same word. 

What do you say of the plurals of foreign 
words ? 

Give an instance of a noun that has no plu- 
ral termination ; and also of one that denotes 
plurality without a plural termination. 

Give an instance of a noun that has the same 
form in both numbers ; and also of a noun that 
has the plural termination only ; and also of a 
noun that has the plural form, but is used in 
the singular ; and also of a noun which has the 
same form for both numbers, and yet is some- 
times used in a regular plural form. 

Give the statement with respect to the plural 
form of compounds ; and with respect to the 
plural form of proper nouns. 

Give the statement with respect to words used 
as mere words ; and with respect to a title and 
a name used together- 



26 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

_ EXERCISES. 

What is the plural form of each of the follow- 
ing words? 

Trunk, box, chair, pen, lady, grief, life, man^ 
brother, beau, genus, cargo, brush, Scipio, Mus- 
sulman, chief, valley, charity, church, arcanum, 
virtuoso, India, vortex. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

§ 13. Case denotes the relation which a 
noun sustains to other words in the sentence, 
expressed sometimes by its termination and 
sometimes by its position. Nouns have three 
cases, the Nominative^ the Possessive or Oenitive^ 
and the Objective or Accusative. 

The Nominative Case is the noun in its sim- 
ple form, and denotes the relation of the sub- 
ject to the finite verb ; as ^^Man speaks ;" ^' John 
is loved." 

The Possessive or Genitive Case denotes 
the relation of possession or origin, and is 
formed by adding to the simple form the let- 
ter 5, with an apostrophe before it; as, ^' Man^s 
virtue ;" *^ Milton! s poems." 

The Objective or Accusative Case is the 
noun in its simple form, and denotes the rela- 
il\Q^ of the object to the verb, or the comple- 



THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 27 

ment of a preposition; as, ^'He struck the sol- 
dier f'' ^^he lives in New HorhP 

Case is from the Latin word casus^ d^ jailing or declension, 

§ 14. DECLENSION OF ENGLISH NOUNS. 





1. Book. 


2. Man. 




Nom., 
Poss.j 
Obj., 


Sing. Plur. 

Book, Books. 
Book's, Books'. 
Book, Books. 


Sing. 

Man, 

Man's, 

Man, 


Plur. 

Men. 

Men's. 
Men. 




3. Fly. 


4. Fox. 




Nom., 

POSS.y 

Obj., 


Sing. Plur. 

Fly, Flies. 
Fly's, Flies'. 
Fly, Flies. 


Sing. 

Fox, 

Fox's, 
Fox, 


Plur. 

Foxes. 
Foxes'. 
Foxes. 




5. Charles. 


6. Goodness. 


Nom., 
Poss., 
Obj., 


Sing. Plur. 

Charles, Charleses. 
Charles's, Charleses'. 
Charles, Charleses. 


Sing. 

Goodness, 
Goodness', 
Goodness, 


Plur. 

Wanting. 

a 



INFLECTION OF THE POSSESSIVE. 

§ 15. I. Generally, when the singular ends 
in Sj or in letters of a similar sound, and the 
next word begins with 5, or when there is an 
s also in the penult, the apostrophic s is omit- 
ted, but the apostrophe is added ; as. For rtght- 
eousness'' sake ; for conscience^ sake ; Hoses' disci- 
ples ; Peleus'' son. See § 97. 

II. When the letter 5, added as the sign of 
the possessive, will coalesce with the termina- 
ting sound of the noun, it is pronounced in the 
same syllable, as John's ; but if it will not coa- 



28 THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. 

lesce, it adds another syllable to the word, as 
in the example above, Gharleis^ pronounced as 
if written Gharlesis, 

III. When the nominative plural ends in 5, 
the possessive plural is formed by adding only 
an apostrophe ; when it does not end in s, the 
possessive plural is formed by adding both the 
apostrophe and the s. See examples of declen- 
sion! 

IMPORT OF THE GENITIVE. 

§ 16. The import of the f^enitive case may often be ex- 
pressed by the particle of. Thus, for man's wisdom we can 
say the wisdom of man. But, though the import of the an- 
alytical genitive (that expressed by q/") is often much the 
same as that of the Saxon genitive (that expressed by 's), it 
is often different. The Paradise Lost of Milton is not in im- 
port exactly the same as Milton's Paradise Lost, In the 
former, attention is called to the author; in the latter, to 
the work. See Crombie's Etymology and Syntax, 

QUESTIONS. 

Give the definition of each of the three cases. 
Give the origin of the term case. 
Give the declension of English nouns, and 
give the rules for the possessive form. 

What is said of the import of the genitive ? 

EXERCISES. 

What is the possessive forra^ singular and plu- 
ral^ of the words^ 

John, eagle, George, church, box, rings, Mo- 
ses? 



THE ADJECTIVE. 29 



CHAPTER III. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

1^ 17. An Adjective is a word whicli qual- 
ifies or limits a noun ; as, A wise man ; virtu- 
ous women ; seven children ; some boys. Here 
wise and virtuous qualify nouns, and seven and 
some limit nouns. 

Or an Adjective is a word which can not, by itself, form 
the subject of a proposition, but which, with the verb to he, 
can form the predicate of a proposition; as, "God is good ;^^ 
**Man is mortaV^ 

CLASSIFICATION. 

§ 18. I. A Pkoper Adjective is one that is 
derived from a proper name ; as, Roman^ from 
Rome ; English^ from England, 

II. A Common Adjective is one that is not 
derived from a proper name, and expresses 
quality; as. Useful^ industrious^ frugal, 

III. A Numeral Adjective is one that ex- 
presses a definite number. There are three 
kinds of numeral adjectives, namely. Cardinal ; 
as, One^ ^?(;o,JAree; Ordinal; as, First^ second^ 
i/iird; Multiplicative; as. Single, double or two- 
fold J treble or three-fold. See § 104. 

IV. A Pronominal Adjective is one that 



so THE ADJECTIVE. 

partakes of the nature of a pronoun and an ad- 
jective, being sometimes used as the one and 
sometimes as the other. The following have 
been called pronominal adjectives : This^ tliat^ 
these ^ those ; each^ every ^ either ; rauch^ many ^ few ^ ' 
several ; lall J none^ any^ one^ other ^ another^ suchj 
some^ both p\certain^ divers^ else ;\ former^ latter ^first^ 
last \ neither^ own^ same^what^ whatever^ luhatso- 
ever, luhich, whichever, whichsoever, &c. These 
words are often classed with pronounsr^ Some 
of these are properly numerals. See § 29. 

V. A Participial Adjective is one that 
has the form of a participle without the idea of 
time; as, ^'A pleasing person;" ^^an amusing 
story.'' 

VI. A Compound Adjective is one that is 
made up of two or more words, usually joined 
by a hyphen; as, ^'- Sun-hurnt hair;" ''''love-lorn 
nightingale." 

ANOTHER CLASSIFICATION. 

§ 19. Adjectives have also been divided into, 

I. Descriptive Adjectives, which express some quality 
or condition of the noun; as, '*A good man;" *'an open 
book." 

II. Definitive Adjectives, which define or limit the 
meaning of the noun to which they are applied; as, ** /Sev- 
eral men ;"" ^/^ose books." 

QUESTIONS. 

Give the definition of an adjective. = 



THE ADJECTIVE. 31 

Mention the several classes of adjectives. 

What is a proper adjective, and what is a 
common adjective ? 

What is a numeral adjective, and what is a 
pronominal adjective? 

What is a participial adjective, and what a 
compound adjective ? 

Mention another classification with exam- 
ples. 

EXEECISES. 

Which of the following words are adjectives? 

A strong man; a beautiful woman ; a healthy 
child ; a fleet horse ; that lesson ; any animal ; 
this large and mellow apple. 

Join a qualifying adjective to each of the follow- 
ing nouns : 

Flower, tree, fruity peach, table, sword, army, 
soldier, sailor. 

Join a limiting adjective to each of the follow- 
ing nouns: 

Paper, ink, pen, pencil, picture, canvas, broad- 
cloth, river, pond, lake, ocean. 

COMPABISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

§ 20. Those adjectives which denote varia- 
ble QUALITIES have three degrees of Compari- 
son, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Su- 
perlative. Variable qualities are those which 
are capable of increase or diminution. 



32 THE ADJECTIVE. 

SIMPLE OR TERMINATIONAL COMPARISON. 

§ 21. The Positive degree of the quality is 
expressed by the adjective in the simple form ; 
as, Wise^ cold. 

The Comparative degree of the quality is 
expressed by adding r or er to the positive form ; 
as, Wiser J colder. 

The Superlative degree of the quality is 
expressed by adding st or est to the positive 
form; as. Wisest^ coldest. 

The comparative refers to two persons oji 
things, and denotes a greater degree of a qual- 
ity in the one than in the other. The superla- 
tive refers to more than two persons or things, 
and denotes the utmost degree of a quality. 

All monosyllables admit of r, st^ or er. est. 
and dissyllables when the addition may be eas- 
ily pronounced. 

When adjectives end in y after a consonant, 
the y is dropped and i substituted before er and 
est; as. Lofty ^ loftier^ loftiest. 

compound comparison. 
§ 22. Every adjective susceptible of compar- 
ison may also be compared by the use of the 
adverbs more and most ; as. More luise^ most tvise. 
This mode of comparison is generally used in 



THE ADJECTIVE. 33 

the case of long words, for euphonic reasons, 
while the other is used in the case of short 
words. 

Diminution of quality, whether the adjec- 
tive is of one syllable or more than one syllable, 
is formed by less and least ; as, Happy ^ less hap- 
py^ least happy. The termination -ish express- 
es a slight degree of a quality, as reddish. 
More^ most J less, or least, prefixed to an adjec- 
tive, forms with it virtually a compound adjec- 
tive. 

We thus have the means of denoting at least 
five varieties of quality ; as, Least happy, less 
happy, happy, more happy, most happy, 

IRKEGULAR COMPARISON. 

§ 23. The following adjectives have different words 
for expressing the different degrees of comparison : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, Better, Best=(beitest). 

Bad, evil, or ill. Worse, Worst, 

Much or many, More, Most. 

Little, Less, Lesser, Least. 

It is stated that the Persian language has bek=good, and 
better for the comparative; so also bad, and comparative 
badter. 

In other languages, the words corresponding to good, bad, 
much, little, are irregularly compared as in English; Anglo- 
Saxon god, betra, betst. In Latin, as an equivalent for goodf 
better, best, we have bonus, melior, optimus. 

Much is etymologically related to moi-e. It is doubtful 
whether littk and less are etymologically related to each 
other. 

- c 



34 



THE ADJECTIVE. 



IREEGULAR TERMINATIONS. 



§ 24. The following adjectives 
ATIONS for expressing the degrees 

Positive. Comparative. 

Aft, After, 

Far, Farther = {Far'er), 

Fore, Former, 

{Forth), Further, 

Hind, Hinder, 

Late, Later, Latter, 

Low, Lower, 

Near, Nearer, 


! have IRREGULAR TERMIN- 

1 of comparison : 

Superlative. 

Aftermost. 

Farthest, Farthermost. 
Foremost = First. 
Furthest. 

Hindermost, Hindmost 
Latest = Last. 
Lowest, Lowermost. 
Near est =^ Next. 




DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 


% 25. The 
comparison : 

Positive. 

Out (adv.) 
In (prep.), 
Up (adv.), 


follo\^ 
ete), 


dng adjectives are defective i^ xheii 

Comparative. Superlative,. 

Outer, Utter, Outermost^ Utmost. 
Inner, Innermost, Inmost. 
Upper, Uppermost, Upmost, 
Hither, Hithermost. 
Nether, Nethermost. 
Elder, Eldest. 
Under, Undermost. 


Eld(ohsQ\ 

Rear, 
Front, 
Mid, 
Middle, 
North, 
. South, 
East, 
West, 
Northern, 
Southern, 
Eastern, 
Western, 




Fi'ontmost. 

Midmost. 

Middlemost. 

Northmost, 

Southmost. 

Eastmost. 

Westmost. 

Northernmost. 

Southernmost. 

Easternmost. 

Westernmost. 























The comparatives yorm^r and latter, or hinder ; upper and 
under, or nether ; inner and outer, or utter ; after and hither ; 
and the Latin superior and inferior ; anterior and posterior ; 
interior and exterior : prior and ulterior ; senior and junior ; 



THE ADJECTIVE. 35 

major and minor ; can not, like other comparatives, be con- 
strued with the conjunction than, 

coMPARiso:^r by intensive words. 

§ 26. When very, exceedingly, or any similar word is put 
before the positive, it is called the Superlative of Eminence. 
Thus, "reri/ hold^'' is the superlative of eminence, and boldest 
is the superlative of comparison. 

Another mode of comparison is to select a certain class 
superior to others as the starting point of comparison ; as, 
*'King of kings;" '4ord of lords;" *Hhe bravest of the 
brave." 

The comparison is sometimes modified by such terms as 
somewhat, little, still, almost, much, so. Thus, *' Learning is 
valuable, prudence is more valuable, and virtue more valu- 
able stilV 

" ShorU shorter, shorter yet my breath I drew." 

ADJECTIVES NOT ADMITTING COMPARISON. 

§ 27. Adjectives whose qualities are invari* 
able can not be compared. Among these are, 

1. All words expressive of figure ; as, Cir- 
cular^ square, 

2. Certain definitive adjectives; as. One, 
two^ several, 

3. Certain words implying matter, time, 
PLACE, PERSON ; as, Wooden^ daily ^ British^ Mo- 
saic. 

4. Words denoting the highest or lowest 
degree of a quality. The following has been 
given as a list of adjectives which do not prop- 
erly admit of degrees : 

Almighty, Circular, Dead, Everlasting, 

Certain, Conscious, Earthly, External, 

Chief, Continual, Empty, Extreme, 



86 


THE AE 


iJECTIYE. 




Fall, 


Heavenly, 


Perfect, 


Sound, 


False, 


Human, 


Perpetual, 


Square, 


Filial, 


Infinite, 


Keverend, 


Subject, 


Fluid, 


Lawful, 


Right, 


Supreme, 


Free, 


Leaden, 


Royal, 


Triangular, 


Godly, 


Living, 


Safe, 


True, 


Golden, 


Natural, 


Serene, 


Universal, 


Gratuitous, 


Paternal, 


Solid, 


Void. 



But familiar words of the first and fourth classes often 
assume the forms of comparison, to denote (1) degrees of 
approach to the figure or quality ; as, mo7'e circular, more 
nearly circular ; more perfect, more nearly perfect ; or (2) to 
assert its possession emphatically ; as, '^Freest of the free ;" 
" truer than truth.^' 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

How many degrees of comparison have ad- 
jectives that denote variable quantities, and 
what are they ? 

In terminational comparison, how is the pos- 
itive expressed? how is the comparative ex-. 
pressed? how is the superlative expressed? 
What is said of compound comparison? and 
of diminution of quality ? and of the termina- 
tion ish ? 

What is said of the number of varieties of 
quality? Give an instance of irregular com- 
parison, in which different words are employed. 
Grive instances of irregular terminations in com- 
parison. Give instances of defective compar- 
ison. 

What is said of comparison by intensive 
words ? What is said of adjectives not admit- 
ting comparison ? 

Mention the comparative and superlative de- 
gree of each of the following adjectives : 



THE ADJECTIVE. 37 

Cold, warm, heavy, light, dark, bright, strong, 
weak, beautiful, quarrelsome, delightful, cour- 
ageous, extravagant. 

NUMERALS. 

§ 28. Numerals express the relation of 
number and quantity. 

CLASSIFICATION. ^ 

§ 29. I. Cardinal Numerals, or Cardinals, which ex- 
press number in its simplest form, anda nswer the question 
How many? as. Owe, two^ three, four ^ and so on indefinitely. 
These express the repetition of a substance in space, and 
are properly attributive. The word one is naturally singu- 
lar. The rest are naturally plural. 

1. Abstract Numej'als, expressed either by the preceding 
numbers used substantively ; as, The ones, the tens ; by words 
derived from the Latin ; as, Unity, trinity ; or by words de- 
rived from the Greek ; as, Monad, duad. 

2. Distributive Nuine7'als (comp. Lat. bini, trini) ; as, One 
by one, two by two, hy fifties. These are expressed in En- 
glish only by adverbial phrases. 

3. Iterative Numerals ; as. Once, twice, thrice. These are 
the genitives of the abstract numerals used adverbially. 
The series is continued by means of adverbial phrases ; as, 
four times, five times ; and answers to the question How 
often ? 

II. Ordinal Numbers, or Ordinals, which denote a se- 
ries, and answer the question Which one in the series? as, 
First, second, third, fourth. The ordinal first is a superla- 
tive form derived from the xootfore. The word second, 
contrary to the analogy of the other ordinal, is derived from 
the Latin secundus. The remainder of the ordinals are de- 
rived from the cardinal numerals by the addition of the 
sound of th, subject to slight variations. In third ih becomes 
d. In fifth the vowel is shortened. In third there is the 
transposition of the letter r. 

Adverbs of order are derived, for the most part, from the 
preceding, by means of the adverbial affix ly ; us, firstly, or, 



88 THE ADJECTIVE. 

what is better, first, secondly, thirdly, &c., and lastly. In 
the higher numbers it is necessary to use an adverbial 
phrase; as, In the eleventh place, in the twelfth place, 

III. Multiplicative Numerals, or Multiplicatives, which 
show the number of parts of which a whole is composed, and 
answer the question How many fold? as, Single, double, triple 
or treble, fourfold or quadruple, 

IV. Partitive Numerals ; as. Half, a third, a quarter^ 
or fourth part. They are mostly used as substantives. 

V. Indefinite Numerals ; as. Many, few, some, all, muck, 
less, several, whole, enough, other, another, only, alone, more, 
any, none, aught, naught, something, nothing, somewhat, &c. 

VI. Indefinite Quantitative s ; as. Great, little, some, 
all. They are taken, for the most part, from the indefinite 
numerals, sometimes by different words ; as, Great and little, 
or large and small (comp. 7nany andyezt?); sometimes by a 
different construction ; as. Some water (comp. some men) ; all 
the house (comp. all houses). 

The indefinite numerals and quantitatives form antitheses ; 
as. Many opposed to few ; great to little ; large to small; all 
to some, 

COMPOUND NUMERALS. 

§ 30. In Compound Numerals of the ordinal series, it is 
only the last number that takes the ordinal termination ; as, 
The thirty-third year ; the five hundred and twenty fifth year. 
When units are combined with tens, they are placed either 
first, with *'and," or last, without *' and" {four-and-twenty, 
or twenty-four) ; but after a hundred the smaller number is 
always last ; as, A hundred qnd twenty-four, 

PLURAL FORMS. 

§ 31. Cardinals take the plural j^rm, though all except 
one are naturally plural. 

** The sun has long been set, 

The stars are out by tioos and threes. 
The little birds are piping yet 
Among the bushes and the trees." — Wordswoetii. 

*' We are not to stay all together, but to come to him where 
he stands by ones, by twos, and by threes.'*^ — Shakspeare. 

Numerals are usually classed with adjectives, and called 
numeral adjectives. Like pronouns, they can be divided, 



THE ADJECTIVE. , 39 

according to their signification and form, into substantive, ad- 
jective, and adverbial numerals ; as, A hundred; ten men; 
tenthly. 

QUESTIONS. 

What do numerals express ? 

Which are the cardinal numerals ? 

What do they express, and what question do 
they answer ? 

Which are the ordinal numerals ? 

What do they denote, and what question do 
they answer ? 

Which are the multiplicative numerals ? 

What do they denote, and what question do 
they answer? 

Which are the partitive numerals ? 

Which are the indefinite numerals? 

Which are the indefinite quantitatives ? 

Which are the compound numerals ? 

What is said of plural forms ? 

EXERCISES. 

Compose a sentence in which there is a car- 
dinal numeral ; and one in which there is an 
abstract numeral ; and one in which, there is a 
distributive numeral ; and one in which there 
is an iterative numeral ; and one in which there 
is an ordinal numeral ; and one in which there 
is a multiplicative numeral ; and one in which 
there is a partitive numeral ; and one in which 
there is an indefinite numeral; and one in which 
there is an indefinite quantitative. 



40 THE ARTICLE. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

THE ARTICLE. 

§ 32. The Article is a part of speecli serv- 
ing to reduce a noun substantive from a gen- 
eral to a particular signification. 

It is a question whether the words an and the should be 
regarded as a distinct part of speech, called the Article, or 
should be classed with adjectives. It is convenient to class 
them as a distinct part of speech. 

THE ARTICLE ^^AN" OR ^^A." 

§ 33. The article an is tlie Anglo-Saxon duy 
the Scotch ane, the Latin unuSj and the numer- 
al one. But though it is the same in derivation 
as the numeral one, it differs from it in mean- 
ing. The word an can not be used by itself; 
the word one can. Thus we can say ** He sold 
one," but not '^ He sold an^ 

1. In the English language the n is omitted before conso- 
nantal sounds and retained before vowel sounds ; as, A man, 
an eagle, a heart, an hour, a union, a oneness. 

2. It is used when we speak of some single object with- 
out defining it. For this reason, in comparison with the, it 
is called the Indefinite Article. It is definite only with re- 
spect to number. Like the adjective, it is the same for all 
genders and cases. 



THE PRONOUN. 41 

THE ARTICLE *^THE." 

§ 34. The word the is called the Definite 
Article^ because it specifies or defines the sub- 
stantive with which it is conjoined; as, The 
marij the woman. By these expressions some 
particular man or woman is signified. It is the 
same for all genders, and cases, and numbers. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

With what words is the article an identical ? 

In what cases is an used in the English lan- 
guage, and in what cases is a used ? 

What is an or a called, and why is it so 
called ? 

In what respect is this article definite ? 

Why is the called the definite article? 

Write three sentences in which the indefinite 
article an or a shall be used, and three in which 
the definite article the shall be used. 



CHAPTEE V. 

THE PRONOUN. 

§ 85. A Pronoun is a word used instead of 
a noun; as, "/ went to London ;" ^^thou hast 
done a good action;" '^he will return." 

Or a Pronoun is a word which can be used instead of a 
noun, either as the subject or the predicate of a proposition ; 
as, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ;" ^' I am Ae." 



42 THE PRONOUN". 

CLASSIFICATION. 

§ 36. I. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun 
whose form shows of what person it is without 
reference to the construction in which it is used. 

The personal pronouns are I^ of the first per* 
son ; thou^ of the second person ; he^ she^ and it^ 
of the third person. It should be remembered 
that nouns are naturally of the third person. 

II. A Demonstrative Pronoun is a pro- 
noun which eminently points out the objects to 
which it relates. 

The demonstrative pronouns are this and 
that^ with their plurals, these and those^ and per- 
haps such and same. 

III. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun 
which stands for some preceding word or phrase 
called the antecedent, and performs the office 
of a conjunction in connecting sentences. 

, The relative pronouns are who^ which^ that^ 
and what, 

IV. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pro- 
noun used in asking questions. 

The interrogative pronouns are who^ which^ 
and what, 

V. An Adjective Pronoun is a pronoun 
which partakes of the nature of the adjective, 
and are also called pronouns not adjectives. 
See § 46. 



THE PRONOUN. 43 

VI. An Adverbial Pronoun is a pronoun 
which, partakes of the nature of an adverb, 
as Here^ ihere^ relates to he and that 

/^' personal pronouns. 

§ 37. A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun 
whose form shows of what person it is, with- 
out reference to the construction in which it is 
used. 

There are five pronouns called Personal, namely, I, 
THOU, HE, SHE, IT. They are so called because they denote 
only the relation of personality. They are substitutes for 
nouns, and are sometimes called substantive pronouns. 

Personal pronouns admit oi person^ number^ 
gender^ and case. 

Variety of form to distinguish the sex is con- 
fined to the third person. He is masculine ; she 
is feminine ; it is neuter. Pronouns of the first 
and second persons are either masculine or fem- 
inine, according to the sex of the speaker or of 
the person addressed. 

§38. 

1st Pers. • 

3(2 Pers, • 

3d Pars. < 

Thou and ye are user^. in solemn or grave address. 



declension of personal pronouns. 




Norn. 


Gen. or Poss. Ace. or Obi 


Singular^ 


I, 


My or mine. Me. 


Plural, 


We, 


Our or ours. Us. 


'Singular, 


Thou or you, 


Thy or thine. Thee. 


Plural, 


- Ye or you, 


Your or yours, You. 




(Masc, He, 


His, Him. 


Singular, • 


<Fem., She, 


Her or hers. Her. 




(NeiU., It, 


Its, It. 


Plural, 


They, 


Their or theirs. Them, 



44 THE PEONOUN". 



SUBSTITUTION" OF PLURALITY FOR UNITY. 

§ 39. We, in the plural, is often used in the place of I in 
the singular, especially by reviewers, authors, monarchs, etc. 

SELF USED WITH THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
AS A REFLECTIVE PRONOUN. 

§ 40. The word self, compounded with the personal pro- 
nouns my^ thy^ him, her, it, and their plurals our, your, theiry 
them, has the force and supplies the place of a reflective pro- 
noun ; as, I abhor myself; thou enrichest thyself; he loves 
himself; she admires herself; it pleases itself: plural : We 
value ourselves ; ye or you hurry yourselves ; they see them- 
selves. Self, in composition, both in the singular and plural 
number, is used only in the nominative and the objective 
case. 



§ 41. In the nominative case, and sometimes when gov- 
erned by a preposition, the compounds of — self express 
emphasis ; as, I myself will write ; I will examine for my- 
self; thou thyself shalt go ; thou shalt see for thyself; you 
yourself shall write ; you shall see for yourself; he himself 
shall write ; he shall examine for himself; she herself shall 
write; she shall examine for herself; the child ^7se^ shall 
be carried ; it shall be present itself 

To make the genitives his, her, its, our^ your, their, mine, 
thine, emphatic or reflective, the pronominal adjective own is 
used; as, *'He killed himself with his own sword;" ''let 
them fall by their own counsel." 

QUESTIONS. 

Give the definition of a pronoun, and tlie 
derivation of the term. 

What is a personal pronoun ? and a demon- 
strative pronoun? and a relative pronoun? and 
an interrogative pronoun? and an adjective 
pronoun? and an adverbial pronoun? 



THE PRONOUN. 45 

What is a personal pronoun ? 
How many personal pronouns are there ? 
Mention them. 

Why are personal pronouns so called ? 
Of what modifications do they admit ? 
What are masculine pronouns, what femin- 
ine, and what neuter ? 

Decline the personal pronouns. 
Of what pronoun has self the force? 
In what case is self emphatic ? 
What is said of oivii ? 

EXERCISES. 

Siihsiitute x^eTsonal pronouns in the following, 

William brought William's book, and Wil- 
liam read it to William's mother. 

George put on George's coat, and buttoned 
up George's coat. 

The preacher preached the preacher's ser- 
mon to the preacher's people on the Sabbath 
after the preacher's ordination. 

Substitute the nouns for which the pronouns 
stand in the following sentences. 

When the general was hastening to take the 
command of his army, a messenger met him. 

David met his friend, as he expected, and 
conducted him to his house. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 42. A Demonstrative Pronoun is a pro- 
noun which eminently points out the object to 
which it relates. 



46 THE PHONOUN. 

The Demonstrative Pronouns are this, pkv 
ral THESE ; that, plural those ; as, '' This is 
true charity : that is only its image." 

* ' The only good on earth 
Was pleasure ; not to follow that was sin." 

In the last example, that stands for ^'pleas- 
ure," and not for that pleasure. It is, therefore, 
in this case, a pronoun, and not an adjective. 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, 
and that to the most distant. This indicates 
the latter or last mentioned, that the former or 
first mentioned; as, ^'Both wealth and poverty 
offer temptations; that tends to excite pride; 
this discontent." 

The words such and same have also been 
called demonstrative pronouns. 

This^ that^ these^ those^ such^ and same^ are most 
commonly classed with adjective pronouns be- 
ing often used as such. 

QUESTiO^^^^ 

What is a demonstrative pronoun ? 
Mention the demonstrative pronouns. 

>^ RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 43.[A Eelative Pronoun is one which 
stands for some preceding word or phrase, call- 
ed the antecedent, and performs the office of a 
conjunction in connecting sentencesTJ 



THE PRONOtlN. 47 

The relative pronouns (Latin relatum^ refero) 
are^HO, which, that, and what. / 

Who is applied to persons ; as, ^' This is the 
orator who will speak to-morrow." ^It is fig- 
uratively applied to things.] 

Which was formerly applied to persons as 
well as things 3? as, " Our Father which art in 
heaven." \It is now ^plied only to animals, 
and things without life! as, ^^ This is the horse 
which I bought yesterday ;" '^ Here is the book 
which I am studying." 
(That is used for who or wMch^ and is applied 
to Doth persons and things/ 

Who and which are the same in both num- 
bers, and are thus declined : > 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

\^Nom,^ Who. Which. 

Poss,^ Whose. Whose. 

Ohj., Whom. Which (see § 45). 

Whose, being the possessive case of both 
who and which^ is applied to persons as well as 
things. ^ 

\ What admits of no variation. It is a com- 
pound relative, and is equivalent to that which. 
It was the neuter of who, ' 

I. 1. Which is a substitute for a sentence, or a part of 
a sentence, as well as for a single word ; as, * ' We are 
bound to obey all the divine commands, which we can not 
do without divine aid." .^^ 



48 THE PEONOUK. 

2. Which is sometimes used as an adjective, or with a 
noun subjoined; as, ''For which reason he will do it." 

3. Which sometimes relates to persons; as, "He told 
me which of the two men was innocent." 

II. 1. What is used to introduce a relative clause when 
the clause is used substantively; as, "This is what I want- 
ed." It admits no immediate antecedent. The use of one 
is vulgar. See § 112, KuleXX. What is used in either the 
singular or the plural number; as, "This book is what is 
v/ anted;" "These books are what are wanted." 

2. What is sometimes used as an adjective, either in the 
singular or plural number; as, "In what character Butler 
was admitted into the lady's service is not known ;" "It is 
not material what names are assigned to them." 

3. What is sometimes used for whatever ; as, " What god 
but enters yon forbidden field ?" 

4. What sometimes stands for an indefinite idea; as, 
" He cares not what he says or does." 

5. What sometimes stands for a sentence or clause ; as, 
"I tell thee what, corporal, I could tear her." Here "I 
could tear her" is explanatory of what. 

6. What is sometimes used as an interjection; as, 
" What! can you lull the winged winds asleep?" 

III. 1. That is a relative pronoun when it is convertible 
into who or which ; as, "The man that rode, the horse that 
fell." 

2. That is a pronominal adjective when it defines or lim- 
its a substantive ; as, " That flower is beautiful." 

3. That is a demonstrative pronoun when it represents a 
noun and is not a relative. See § 42. 

4. That is a conjunction when it serves merely to connect 
sentences ; as, "I eat that I may live." 

The word as is sometimes used as a relaiive pronoun; 
as, "The man as rides to market." This use is provin- 
cial. 

COMPOUND EELATIVES. 

§ 44. Who, which, and what have sometimes the words 
ever and soever annexed to them; as. Whoever, whichever, 
whatever, whosoever, whichsoever, and whatsoever. These 
words have the same construction as what; as, " Whoever 
will follow Christ must expect reproach;" "At once came 
forth whatever creeps." 



THE PRONOUN. 49 



QUESTIONS. 

'Wli'';^ is a relative prononn, and what oj05.ce 
does it perform ? 

Which are the relative pronouns ? 

What is said of who? also of which? and 
also of that? and also of what? 

Decline who and which. 

Does what admit of any variation ? 

Mention the several ways in which which is 
used ; and in which what is used ; and in which 
that is used. 

Mention the compound relatives. 

Mention the antecedents and the relatives in 
the following sentences: 

The book which you gave me I have read. 

The man whom I met has gone to New York. 

The horse that I mounted was restive. 

The birds which were here in summer have 
gone into southern climates. 

The soldiers who fought in the war of the 
Eevolution deserve to be held in grateful re- 
membrance. 

Mention the compound relatives in the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

Tell me what you want, and I will tell you 
what you shall have. 

Whoever would ascend the hill of science 
must toil. 

Whichever path you take will lead you to 
your home. 

Whosoever yields to vice violates his con- 
science. 

D 



50 THE PRONOUJSr. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

^ % 45. An Interrogative Pronoun is a 
pronoun used in asking questions. 

Who, which, and what are called Inter- 
rogatives when they are used in asking ques- 
tionsj as, Who is there ? Which is the book ? 
What are you doing ? Interrogative pronouns 
are those by which the demonstrative relation 
of a person or thing is asked.-^ 

1. Who, used interrogatively, is applied to persons; 
WHICH and what to both persons and things. 

2. Whether, signifying which of the two, was anciently 
used as an interrogative ; as, '* Whether is greater, the gold 
or the temple ?" In this sense it is now obsolete, being re- 
placed by WHICH. 

3. A Relative refers to a subject that is antecedent ; an 
Interrogative to one that is subsequent ; as, ' ' John, who did 
it;" '' Who diidi\% John r 

4. Who inquires for the name ; which, for the individ- 
ual; WHAT, for the character or occupation. Thus, Who 
wrote the book ? Mr. Webster. Which of the Websters ? 
Noah Webster. What was he ? A lexicographer. 

5. Who is applied to persons indejinitely, but which is 
applied to persons definitely. * ' Who will go up with me to 
Ramoth-Gilead?" is indefinitely proposed to all who shall 
hear the question. ''^ Which of you, with taking thought, 
can add to his stature one cubit?" is an interrogation ad- 
dressed to an individual, as appears from the partitive form 
of the words '•'■which oy*^oM" = ''what one of you all." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? 
Which are the interrogative pronouns ? 
State how who^ which^ smd what, and whethefr 
are used. 



THE PKONOUIT. 51 

What is the difference between who and 
luhich in their application to persons ? 

What is an adjective pronoun ? 

Mention which are the interrogative pronouns 
in the following sentences : 

Who discovered America ? 

Which was the book ? 

What is the time of day ? 

Whose pen is this ? 

# ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 46. An Adjective Peonoun is a pronoun 
which partakes of the nature of an adjective, 
and is often called a pronominal adjective. 
See §18. \ 

Each, ce/c, is sometimes called a distributive, because it 
denotes all the individuals of a number taken separately; 
as, '*Tlie four beasts had each of them six vv^ings;" "The 
prince had a body-guard of a thousand men, each of whom 
was six feet high. " In these two examples each is used in 
its Pronominal character. ^' He exacted of each man fifty 
shekels." In this passage each is an Adjective. 

Every =^ ever each^ denotes all the individuals of a number 
greater than two, separately considered. *'Each and every 
of the clauses and conditions." Here every is a Pronoun. 
''''Every man's performances." Here every is an Adjective. 

Either denotes one of two, but not both, ''''Either of the 
roads is good." Here either is a Pronoun. *'I will take 
either road at your pleasure." Here either is an Adjective. 
Either has also sometimes the meaning of each ; as, ' ' Seven 
times the sun had either tropic viewed ;" ''Two thieves were 
crucified on either side." 

Neither =720^ either, is used as a Pronoun and as an Ad- 
jective ; as, '''■Neither ofiice will fit the candidate, though 
neither of the offices is filled." 

Other is used as a Pronoun, and opposed to one; as, 
" All rational evidence is derived from one or other of these 



52 THE PEONOUJSr. 

two sources." It is also used as an Adjective ; as, " Other 
sheep I have which are not of this fold." When used with- 
out a substantive it takes a plural, Other^ others. Other in- 
dicates separation, and means one more, or one of the same 
class or kind. 

Another, a?z, owe, and other— one other. *'Let another 
praise thee, and not thine own mouth." Here another is a 
Pronoun. '^Another soldier was killed." Here another is 
an Adjective. Another is used in the possessive case ; as, 
*''' Another^ s aid." 

One, a numeral Adjective, is also used as a Pronoun. 
One, when contrasted with other, sometimes represents plu- 
ral nouns; as, *'The reason why the one are ordinarily 
taken for real qualities, and the other for bare powers, seems 
to be. " — Locke. ^ ' There are many whose waking thoughts 
are wholly employed on their sleeping ones.'''' — Addison. 
One often stands in company with every, any, no, some. 

Any has several meanings : 1. After we^a^we words, and 
such words and phrases as have a negative force, ''• any''^ 
marks the exclusion of all. *' He did it without any hesita- 
tion." **We can not make any difference between you." 
So after '•'- scarcely,'''' and comparatives, and in questions 
where the expected answer is nobody, none. " Scarcely any 
one."" *'He is taller than any of his school-fellows." "Can 
any man believe this ?" 2. It is sometimes equivalent to 
*'*'any you please," '''every body;" as, '•''any body can do 
that." 3. Again: it is sometimes indefinite, being equiva- 
lent to some one ; as, " Shall we tell any body of our misfor- 
tunes?" 

Such. *' Objects of importance must be portrayed by ob- 
jects of importance ; such as have grace by things graceful." 
— Campbell's Rhetoric, i., 2. Such here supplies the place 
of a noun, though it retains its Adjectival character, and the 
noun may be added. 

Aught. The word naught is aught preceded by the neg- 
ative particle. "Doth Job serve God for naught f^=not a 
whit— not any thing -^nothing. 

Some. '■^ Some to the shores do fly, some to the woods." 
In cases like this it has a Pronominal character. ''''Some 
men and some women were present." Here some is adjec- 
tival. " yS'owe with numerals is used to signify a&owif. Some 
fifty years ago." 

Former, latter ; the one denotes priority, the other 
posteriority. Their nouns are frequently understood. Used 



THE PRONOU]S\ 53 

Bubstantively in the singular, they have a regular genitive { 
as, ^^ The Jormer^s phlegm, the /a^^er's vivacity. " 

Both. *'He will not bear the loss of his rank because 
he can bear the bss of his estate ; but he will bear both, be- 
cause he is prepared for loth,''^ Here it is Pronominal in its 
character. " To both the preceding kinds the term burlesque 
is applied." Here it is Adjectival. 

Own. In its Adjectival character, it is intensive, being 
added to words to render the sense emphatical ; as, '' This 
is my own book." In the following example it has a Pro- 
nominal character: ''That they may dwell in a place of 
their oiyw." — 2 Sam., ch. vii. In this example a substan- 
tive can not follow own. 

For a list of this class of words, see § 18. 

KECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 47. f A Eeciprocal Pronoun is one that 
implies tte mutual action of diflferent agents. 
Each other and one another are our recip- 
rocal forms, whicli are treated exactly as if 
they were compound pronouns, taking for their 
genitives each other^s, one another^ s. Each other 
is properly used of two or more, and one anoth- 
er of more than two. 1 

exercises. 

Compose three sentences in each of which 
there shall be a personal pronoun ; and three 
in each of which there shall be a relative pro- 
noun ; and three in each of which there shall 
be a compound pronoun ; and three in each of 
which there shall be an interrogative pronoun ; 
and four in each of which there shall be an ad- 
jective pronoun. 



54 THE VEKB. 



CHAPTER VI. 

y THE VERB. 

§ 48i A Verb is a word which may express 
an assertioiil as, "John reads^ Here the act 
of reading'^'is asserted of John. "Sugar is 
sweet." Here the quality of sweetness is as- 
serted of sugar. 

Or a Verb is a word which can form by itself the Predi- 
cate of a proposition; as, *'The sun shines.''^ Here shines 
forms the predicate of the proposition, and is by the defini- 
tion a verb. **God i5." Here is forms the predicate of 
the proposition. See English Grammar, § 317. 

CLASSIFICATION' OF VERBS. 

§ 49. I. /Those of the Ancient or Strong 
Conjugation, commonly called Irregulai^ See 
§ 73. 

11. Those of the Moder:^^ or Weak Conju- 
gation, commonly called Eegular^ See § 74. 

Verbs have also been divided into Principal 
and Auxiliary Yerbs, Substantive and Adjec- 
tive Verbs, Primitive and Derived Verbs. 

There are also Eeflective, Defective, and Im- 
personal Verbs. 

Verbs are divided into two classes, accord- 
ing to their uses ; I. The Transitive. II. In- 



THE VERB. 55 

TRANSITIVE. Many verbs are sometimes trans- 
itive and sometimes intransitive. 

TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

§ 50., Verbs are called Transitive if tbeir 
idea is incomplete without it:lie complementary 
notion of En object | as, " He struck^ Here the 
meaning' of sirucli:. is incomplete, for it has no 
object. 

/l. Transitive Verbs express an assertion in 
two forms, called the Active Voice and the 
Passive Voice. 

2. The term transitive signifies passing over, 
" He struck the boy." Here something is sup- 
posed to pass over from the subject to the ob- 
ject. The verb struch is a transitive verb in 
the active form. *'The boy was struck by 
him." Here the same affirmation is expressed 
in the passive form. The object of the verb 
in the former case is the subject in this. 

3. The object of a transitive verb is always 
its complement, which, if not expressed by the 
speaker or the writer, is supplied by the hearer 
or the reader from the connection. / 

INjHHHMMiii VERBS. 

§ 51. Verbs are called Intransitive if their 
notion or idea is complete without the aid of any 



56 THE VERB. 

complementary notion ; as/^ He sleeps, ^^ Here 
the meaning of sleeps is complete. It is con- 
fined to the subject ; it needs no object. 

1. The term intransitive means not passing 
over. ^' He runsP Here the act of running is 
limited to the subject. 

2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, can 
not regularly be used in the passive form. 

8. Some verbs are used sometimes in a trans- 
itive and sometimes in an intransitive sense ; 
as, Range^ to place in order ; and Range^ to roam 
at large. 

4. An intransitive verb can be defined as 
one which expresses simple being ; as, I am ; 
or state of being ; as. He sleeps ; or action lim- 
ited to the agent ; as, He runs, f 

QUESTIONS. 

Give the definition of a verb. • 

Give the classification of verbs. 

When are verbs called transitive verbs, and 
in what two forms do they express an asser- 
tion? 

What is the meaning of the word transitive, 
and what is said of the active and passive form 
in this connection ? 

What is said of the object of a transitive 
verb? 

When are verbs called intransitive verbs ? 

What is the meaning of intransitive ? 



THE VERB. 57 

Can intransitive verbs be regularly used in 
the passive form ? 

Give an instance of a verb being used some- 
times in the transitive and sometimes in the in- 
transitive form. 

What does an intransitive verb express ? 

EXERCISES. 

Mention the verbs in the following sentences: 

The grass grows. The sun shines. The 
birds fly in the air. The arrow missed the 
mark. The pyramids were built many cen- 
turies ago. The class will recite the lesson at 
eleven o'clock. 

Supply the verbs in the following sentences : 

The snow — ^the earth. The moon — in the 
night. The horse — his rider. Storm — ships. 
The mail— letters. 

Which of the following verbs are transitive^ 
and which are intransitive ? 

The cow chews her cud. The dog sleeps by 
the fire. The ox is a useful animal. The hound 
scents the fox. The owl catches mice. The 
cat purrs. The boys sported on the green. 

Write three sentences containing transitive^ and 
three containing intransitive verbs, 

THE ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS. 

§ 52. To verbs belong Person, Number, 
Tense, Moue, and YajeE. 

The forms of conjugation are, voices, for the relation of 
the action of the verb to the subject ; modes, for the relation 



58 THE VERB. 

of reality^ whether existing, conceived of, or willed by the 
speaker ; tenses, for the relation of time ; numbers and per- 
sons, to agree with the ww/w6er and person of the subject. 

THE PERSOI^S OF VERBS. 

§ 53. Yerbs have three persons, First, Sec- 
ond, and Third. 

NUMBERS OF VERBS. 

§ 54. Verbs have two numbers, the Singu- 
lar and the Plural. 

tenses of the verb. 

§ 55. Tense is a form of the verb used to 
express the relation of time; as, I strike^ I 
struck. 

By combinations of words and inflections, 
Enghsh verbs have six tenses, namely. Pri- 
mary Tenses: 1. The Present; 2. The Past; 
3. The Future. Secondary Tenses: 1. The 
Present Perfect ; 2. The Past Perfect ; 3. 
The Future Perfect, 

FORMS FOR THE PRESENT TENSE. 

§ 56. The Present Tense denotes present 
time. Of this there are three forms : 1. I write. 
This is the Simple form, and denotes habitual 
action and what is true at all times. 2. I am 
writing. This is the Progressive form, and de- 



THE VERB. 59 

notes that the action is now going on. 3. I do 
write. This is the Emphatic form, and is used 
in positive assertions. 

1. The present tense is often used instead of the past, in 
order to give animation to description. "He walks (for 
walked) up to him and knocks (for knocked) him down." 
This denotes a single action, and not the natural habitual 
power of the English present. 

2. The present tense is also used instead of the future 
when the future is conceived of as present; as, '*/ can not 
determine till the mail arrives ;^^ ''When he has an opportunity 
he will writey The words till^ when, carry the mind to an 
event to happen, and we speak of it as present. 

FORMS FOR THE PAST TENSE. 

§ 57. The Past Tense, or Preterit, denotes 
past time. Of this there are three forms: 1. I 
wrote. This is the Simple form, and represents 
an action which took place at some time com- 
pletely, past. 2. I was writing. This is the 
Progressive form, and represents the action as 
Tinfinished at a certain specified time past. " I 
was speaking when he entered." 3. I did write. 
This is the Emphatic form. 

FORMS FOR the FUTURE TENSE. 

§ 58. The Future Tense denotes future 
time. There are two forms : 1. I shall write. 
This is the Simple form, and represents an ac- 
tion that is yet to come. 2. I shall he writing. 
This is the Progressive form, and expresses an 
action which is to take place at a future speci- 



60 THE VEKB. 

fied time. Both forms are expressed in tlie 
English by the combination of will or shall 
with an infinitive mode. 

FORMS FOR THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

§ 59. The Present Perfect Tense denotes 
past time completed in the present, or connect- 
ed with the present. Of this there are two 
forms: 1. ^^I have written a letter.'^ This is 
the Simple form, and represents an action as 
having been finished in some time past, reck- 
oning from the present 2. *^ I have heen writing 
these two hours." This is the Progressive 
form, and represents an action as just finished. 
The first is expressed by the auxiliary verb 
have and the passive participle. See § 76. 

If a particular time not connected with the present is 
mentioned, the tense must be the past; as, *'I finished the 
work last week." *^I have seen my friend last week" is 
not correct English. 

FORMS FOR THE PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

§ 60. The Past Perfect denotes past time 
that precedes some other past time. .Of this 
there are two forms : 1. *^ I had written the let- 
ter before he arrived^ This is the Simple 
form, and represents the action as past before 
some other past time specified. 2. " I had heen 
writing hetore he arrived^ This is the Pro- 



THE VERB. 61 

gressive form, and represents that the action 
was going on before another action took place. 

FORMS FOR THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

§ 61. The Future Perfect denotes future 
time that precedes some other future time. Of 
this there are two forms : 1. " I shall have writ- 
ten the letter before the mail is closed." This 
is the Simple form, and denotes an action which 
will be past at a future time specified. 2. ^'I 
shall have been writing an hour before the mail 
is closed." This is the Progressive form, and 
represents that an action will be going on be- 
fore a certain other future action will take place. 

There are other grammatical forms for expressing future 
time; as, *'I am going to write;" *'I am about to write." 
In the sentence "I have to pay a sum of money to-morrow," 
there is implied a present necessity to do 2i future act. The 
substantive verb, followed by an adjective verb, forms an- 
other idiomatic expression of future time; as, ^^ John is to 
command a regiment." 

QUESTIONS. 

What are the attributes of verbs ? 

How many persons have verbs ? 

How many numbers are there in verbs ? 

How many, and what tenses are there ? 

"What does present tense denote, and what 
are the three forms ? 

Is the present tense ever used for the past 
and the future ? 

Give examples. 



62 THE VERB. 

What does past tense denote, and wliat are 
the three forms ? 

What does future tense denote ? 

What are the two forms of the future 
tense ? 

What does the present future tense denote, 
and what are its two forms ? 

What does the past perfect denote, and what 
are its two forms ? 

What does the future perfect denote, and 
what are its two forms ? 

What is said of strike and strucic ? 

MODES OF THE VERB. 

§ 62. Mode denotes those forms which the 
verb assumes in order to express the relation 
of reality or existence as conceived of by the 
speaker. See § 75. It shows the manner^ 
Latin modus ^ in which an attribute is asserted 
of the subject. 

I/f^he Indicative mode is that form of the 
verb which expresses direct assertion or inter- 
rogationl as, ''He teaches f '-^ Do they learn?" 
It is used for actual existence. 

II.. The Subjunctive mode is that form of 
the verb which expresses conditional assertion ;^ 
as, '' If he were there ;" '' Though he writer It 
is used for doubtful existence. 

III. "^The Potential mode is that form of 
the verb which expresses assertions implying 



THE VERB. 63 

possibility, contingency, or necessity ;| as, "He 
can write ;" " He may go ;" " He must submit." 
It is used for possible or necessary existence. 

IY.ljrhe Imperative mode is that form of 
tbe verb wHcli expresses the will of the speak- 
er/ as, ^''Depart thou;" "Let us stay f " Go in 
peace." This is used for desired existence. 

^The Infinitive is that form of the verb 
which is not limited to any particular person 
or number / as. To rest; to learn. It is used 
for existence in general. It partakes of the 
nature of an abstract noun. The verb in this 
form does not assert or predicate. 

QUESTIONS. 

What does mode denote ? 

What does the indicative mode denote ? 

Give an example. 

What is it used for ? 

What does the subjunctive mode express? 

Give an example. 

What is it used for ? 

What does the potential mode express ? 

Give an example. 

What is it used for ? 

What does the imperative mode express? 

Give an example. 

What is it used for ? 

What is the infinitive ? 1i»* 

Give an example. 

What is it U-sed for? 



64 THE VERB 

THE PAETICIPLES. 

§ 68. A Paeticiple is a verbal adjective, 
differing from other adjectives by carrying with 
it the idea of time. 

There are two participles ; the Present, called, also, the 
Imperfect or the Active Participle ; as, Loving ; and the 
Past, called, also, the Perfect or Passive Participle; as, 
Loved^ written. Besides these, there are certain forms 
called Compound Participles ; as, being loved; having loved; 
having been loved. The last two forms are often called the 
Compound Perfect. 

the present participle. 
§ 64. The Present Participle ends in -ing^ 
and expresses the continuance of an action, 
state, or being; as, He was loving; they were 
sleeping. 

1. This participle often has the nature of an adjective; 
as, a loving friend. It also becomes an adverb by receiving 
the termination -ly ; as. Lovingly ; and admits of compari- 
son; as. More lovingly, most lovingly. 

2. This participle also becomes a noun, and admits the 
articles; as, ^' The bur ni7ig of Liondon in 1666." ''There 
was a leanitig to popery." In this capacity it takes the 
plural form ; as, '' The overflowings of the Nile." 

THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 

§ 65. The Past Participle, called, also, the 
perfect^ or the passive participle, has different 
terminations, according as it comes from the 
ancient conjugation or the modern conjugation. 
For the meaning of the terms, see § 73. 



THE VERB. 65 

The perfect participle often loses its verbal character and 
becomes an adjective ; as, A drunken man ; a concealed plot. 
In this character it admits of comparison ; as, A more ad- 
mired artist; most respected magistrate. A few of these 
verbal adjectives receive the termination of -ly and become 
adverbs; as, Pointedly; more conceitedly ; most dejectedly. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is a participle ? 

How many participles are there? 

What are they called ? 

What is said of the present participle ? 

What other parts of speech may it become ? 

What is said of the past participle as to term- 
ination? 

Does the perfect participle ever lose its verb- 
al character? 

What does it become ? 

Give an instance. 

Give an instance of a participle becoming an 
adverb. 

CONJUGATION. 

§ 66. Conjugation is the distribution of the 
several inflections or variations of a verb in 
their different voices, modes, tenses, numbers, 
and persons. The conjugation of a verb in the 
active form is called the Active voice, and that 
in the passive form the Passive voice. As En- 
glish verbs have but few inflections, their con- 
jugation consists chiefly of variation accom- 
plished by means of auxiliary verbs. 
E 



66 THE VERB. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

§ 67. Auxiliary Verbs, or Helping Verbs, 
perform the same office in the conjugation of 
principal verbs which inflection does in the 
classical languages, though even in those lan- 
guages the substantive verb is sometimes used 
as a helping verb; as, Amatus cram. They 
are followed by the other verbs without the 
prefix ^0 in the infinitive; as, "He may go J"* 
They were originally principal verbs, and some 
of them retain that character as well as that of 
auxiliaries. 

classification of auxiliary verbs. 
§ 68. I. The verbs that are always auxiliary 
to others are, May^ can, shall, must; II. Those 
that are sometimes auxiliary and sometimes prin, 
cipal verbs are, Will, have, do, be, and let. Let 
and must have no variation. The power of the 
verb as an auxiliary is a modification of the 
original power which it had as a non-auxiliary. 

DERIVATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

§ 69. I. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of pos- 
session : Have. It is used both as a principal and as an 
auxiliary verb. See § 71. 

II. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of existence : 
Be, am, was. See § 71. 

III. Auxiliary verb, derived fron) the idea of future des- 



THE YERB. 67 

tination, dependent on circumstances external to the agent : 
Shall. In the first person it simply foretells ; as, ''I shall 
go to New York to-morrow." In this phrase the word 
seems to have no reference to obligation ; but in its primi- 
tive sense it denotes to be obliged^ coinciding nearly with 
ought. When shall is used in the second and third persons, 
it assumes its primitive sense, or one allied to it, implying 
obligation ; as, when a superior commands with authority, 
You shall go. Hence shall^ in the first person, foretells ; in 
the second and third, promises, commands, or expresses de- 
termination. See § 71. 

Should (preterit of shall) expresses duty, supposition ; as, 
"You should pay the money;" ''If it should rain to-mor- 
row, I shall not be able to keep my promise." Should is 
also used to express an opinion doubtfully or modestly ; as, 
"I should think so." 

IV. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of future des- 
tination, dependent on the volition of the agent: Will. 
Will, in the first person, not ov^j foretells, but promises ; in 
the second and third, it only Jbretells. See § 71. 

Would (preterit of will) properly implies volition, but, like 
should, is frequently used as a simple future, dependent on a 
verb of past time; as, ''He said it would rain to-day;" 
"He promised me that he should ^o to-morrow." See § 71. 

1. There is the same difference between ivould and should 
that there is between will and shall, when used with the 
past tenses. Would promises or threatens in the first person, 
and simply foretells in the others. Should simply foretells 
in the first person, and promises or threatens in the other 
persons. 

2. When the second and third persons are represented as 
the subjects of their own expressions, shall foretells, as in the 
first person ; as, " He says that he shall be a loser by this 
bargain;" "Do you suppose you shall go?" Will, in such 
instances, promises, as in the first person : "You say that you 
will be present ;" " He says he will attend to the business." 

3. In interrogative sentences, shall and will have, in gen- 
eral, a meaning nearly opposite to what they have in affirm- 
ative sentences. Shall, used interrogatively, in the first, 
second, and third persons, refers to another's will; thus, 
" Shall I go?" signifies. Will you permit me to go ? Will, 
used interrogatively, in the second and third persons, de- 
notes volition or determination in the subject ; as, ** Will 
you go?" 



68 THE VERB. 

4. When the verb is in the subjunctive mode, the mean- 
ing of shall and will undergoes some alteration ; thus, ' ' He 
shall proceed" expresses a command, but ''If he shall pro- 
ceed" expresses a mere future contingency. 

V. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of power, de- 
pendent upon circumstances external to the agent : May. 
"He may purchase the field if he pleases;" "He might 
(preterit) purchase the field if he pleased." May^ when it 
stands before its subject, expresses a wish : May he come ; 
might it but turn out well. See § 71. 

VI. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of power, de- 
pendent on circumstances internal to the agent : Can, An- 
glo-Saxon cunnan=to know how to do. May is simply per- 
missive, can is potential. 

VII. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of necessity : 
Must. 

Must, and likewise may and can (as well as can not), are 
each used in two senses, which are often confounded to- 
gether. They relate sometimes to power and sometimes to 
contingency. 

VIII. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of suifer- 
ance : Let— sz{^er, permit. Besides permission, it may ex- 
press wishes^ requests, commands, and exhortations. It is 
used only in the imperative mode. 

IX. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of action : Do, 
Anglo-Saxon don. Do and did, used as auxiliaries, mark 
the emphatic form of the verb; as, "I do teach;" "I did 
teach." They are generally used in negative and interrog- 
ative sentences ; as, " I c?o not fear ; " "Z>/c/ he hear?" It 
sometimes supplies the place of a verb previously used ; as, 
"You attend not to your studies as he c?oe5," that is, as he 
attends. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is said of conjugation? 

What is said of have ? of be ? of shall ? of 

WILL ? of MAY ? of CAN ? of MUST ? of LET, and 
of DO? 



^ 



THE VERB. 



69 



§ 70. CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 

MAY. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may. 1. We may. 

2. Thou mayest (you may). 2. Ye or you may. 

3. He may. 3. They may. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might. 1. We might. 

2. Thou mightest (you might). 2. Ye or you might. 

3. He might. 3. They might. 

CAN. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I can. 1. We can. 

2. Thou canst (you can). 2. Ye or you can. 

3. He can. 3. They can. 

Past Tense. 

1. I could. 1. We could. 

2. Thou couldst (you could). 2. Ye or you could. 

3. He could. 3. They could. 

SHALL. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall. 1. We shall. 

2. Thou shalt (you shall). 2. Ye or vou shall. 

3. He shall. 3. They shall. 

Past Tense, 

1. I should. 1. We should. 

2. Thou shouldst (you should). 2. Ye or you should. 

3. He should. 3. They should. 

WILL. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 will. 1. We will. 

2. Thou wilt (you will). 2. Ye or you will. 

3. He will. 3. They will. 

Past Tense. 

1. I would. 1. We would. 

2. Thou wouldst (you would). 2. Ye or you would. 

3. He would. 3. They would. 



70 THE VERB. 

MUST. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I must. 1. We must. 

2. Thou must (you must). 2. Ye or you must. 

3. He must. 3. They must. 

Present Perfect Tense, 

1. I must have. 1. We must have. 

2. Thou {or you) must have. 2. Ye or you must hare. 

3. He must have. 3. They must have. 

DO. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do. 1. We do. 

2. Thou dost (you do). 2. Ye or you do. 

3. He does or doth. 3. They do. 

Past Tense. 
l.Idid. 1. We did. 

2. Thou didst (you did). 2. Ye or you did. 

3. He did. 3. They did. 
Infinitives. — Present Tense, To do. Past Tense, To hare 

done. Participles : Present Tense, Doing. Past or Per- 
fect Tense, Done. Compound Perfect, Having done. 

HAVE. 

INl^ICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have. 1. We have. 

2. Thou hast (you have). 2. Ye or you have. 

3. He has or hath. 3. They have. 

Past Tense, 

1. I had. 1. We had. 

2. Thou hadst (you had). 2. Ye or you had. 

3. He had. 3. They had. 

Note. — In the foregoing tenses this verb is used either as 
a principal verb or as an auxiliary. 

Infinitives. — Present Tense, To have. Perfect Tense, To 
have had. Present Participle, Having. Past or Perfect, 
Had. Compound Perfect, Having had. 

The words did, hast, hath, has, had, shall, wilt, are evident- 



THE VERB. 71 

ly, as Wallis observes, contracted for doed, havest, haveth, 
haves, kaved, shallst, willst, 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

Conjugate the auxiliary verbs. 

What are did^ hast^ hath^ has, had, shall, wilt, 
contractions of? 

[The pupil is expected to recite all the sev- 
eral conjugations, and to be able to give voice, 
and mode, and tense, and person of each of the 
forms in the several conjugations. The dis- 
tinction of voice is found only in the verb ^^ to 
love."] 

THE VERB SUBSTANTIVE. 

§ 71. The Verb Substantive is made up 
of three different verbs, each of which is defective 
in some of its parts, namely, Was, be, am. The 
parts which are defective in one verb are sup- 
plied by the inflections of one of the others. 

§ 72. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB SUB- 
STANTIVE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Am. Past, Was. Per/, Part,, Been. 

tt| 1 INDICATIVE MODE. 

\^ Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. "We are. 

2. Thou art (you are). 2. Ye or you are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

Past Tense {Preterit). 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. Thou wast (you were). 2. Ye or you were. 
8. He was. 3. They were. 



72 THE VERB. 

Future Tense (^Predictive). 

Singular. Plural, 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. Thou wilt be (you will be). 2. Ye or you will be. 

3. He will be. 3. They will be. 

Future Tense {Promissive), 

1. I will be. 1. We will be. 

2. Thou shalt be (you shall be).2. Ye or you shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been (you have ) o v^ i v 

\yQQ^\ > 2. Ye or you have been. 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been (you had ) o v« ^„ „^„ i,„j k^^„ 

^^g^x ^^ ^2. Ye or you had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense {Predictive). 
1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

'• ^ wm we blen'r ^''"^ \ '■ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ '^' 
3. He will have been. 3. They will have been. 

Future Perfect Tense (Promissive). 

1. I will have been. 1. We will have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been ) „ v« ^„ ,,^„ ,i,„\i r,„„^ k«^« 

(you shall have been). \ ^' ^^ ^" ^^^ '^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^- 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. \ / 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be (if you be). 2. If ye or you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Present Tense, Second Form, 

1. If I am, 1. If we are. 

2. If thou art (if you are) . 2. If ye or you are. 

3. If he is. 3. If they are. 



m 






THE VERB. 73 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wert (if you were). 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 
Past Tense, Second Form. 

1. If I was. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wast (if you were). 2. If ye or you were. 

3. If he was. 3. If they were. 
Future Tense. 

1. If I shall or will be. 1. If we shall or will be. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be (if ) o t^ „^ ^^ ^ r,T,«n ^ „,;n k^ 

r you shall or wUl be). V'^^ ^^ ""^ ^""^ '^''" ""^ ^'l^''^- 

3. If he shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. If I have been. 1. If we have been. 

2. If thou hast been (if you ) g. „ g <,^ ^u have been. 

have been). S "^ *^ 

3. If he has been. 3. If they have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

^* "^ ■htrbeen)'* ^''''' ^'^ ^'''' } ^' ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^''"• 
3. If he had been. 3. If they had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1 . If I shall or will have been. 1. If we shall or will have been. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have ) o t^ ,« ^^ „^., „T,«n ^., „.:n 

1 ../. ,11 f 2. It ye or you snail or will 

been (if you shall or \ ^ , J 

will have been). S ^^^^ ^^^^* 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

been. been. 

The potential forms are converted into the subjunctive by 
prefixing if or some similar conjunction. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

**** Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be. 1. We may, can, or must be. 

2 fmust^r'*' ""'' "2 5 Ye may, can, or must be. 
I r^ ' i.1, \ ( You may, can, or must be. 

( (You may, can, or must be.) j? ' 

3. He may, can, or must be. 3. They may, can, or must be. 



74 



THE VERB. 



1. 



--^ Past Tense, 

Singular. 

I might, could, would, or 1. 
should be. 

iThou mightest, couldst, 
wouldst, or shouldst be. <^ 
(You might, could, would, *"* 
or should be. ) 
He might, could, would, 3. 
or should be. 



3 



Plural. 

We might, could, would, 

or should be. 
Ye might, could, would, 

or should be. 
You might, could, would, 

or should be. 
They might, could, would, 
or should be. 
Present Perfect Tense, 
1. I may, can, o?- must have 1. We may, can, or must 
been. have been. 

i'Thou mayest, canst, or TYe may, can, or must 
o j must have been. ^ ) have been. 

* j (You may, can, or must ' j You may, can, or must 
( have been.) ' have been. 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 
have been. have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 
1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 
should have been. or should have been, 

r Thou mightest, couldst, ,^ j ^ ,3 j^ 

2] rvebtn"'" 2] o*- should have been. 

i/v ^' \.4.' ^ ^A ^ ^A i You might, could, would, 
I (You might, could, would, , ^ , j , ' ' 

( or should have been.) ^ or shouia Have been. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 
or should have been. or should have been. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 
Sing., 2. Be, 0. \ ^ '^l' Plur., 2. Be, or \ |« ^^^^ 



3. Let him be. 



3. Let them be.. 



PAETICIPLES. 



Present, Being. 



( Past or Perfect, Been. 

\ Compound Perfect, Having been* /y 



THE VERB. 75 

V 

THE ANCIENT CONJUGATION. 

§ 73. Yerbs of tlie Ancient conjugation, 
commonly called irregular verbs, form their 
past (or preterit) tense by simply changing the 
vowel. Thus sang is formed from sing by 
changing i into a ; fell (the past tense) from 
fallj the present, by changing the a into e. 
The principal parts of the Ancient verb " to 
take," are, present^ ^'Take;" past^ ^^Took;" 
perfect participle^ " Taken." See English 
Grammar, § 349. 

THE MODERN OR WEAK CONJUGATION. 

§ 74. Verbs of the Modern conjugation form 
their past tense or preterit from the present, by 
the addition of the sound of -(i, -^, or -ed. The 
past participle and the preterit have generally 
the same form. 

§ 75. CONJUGATION OF THE MODERN VERB 
"to LOVE." 
(Commonly called Regular,) 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Principal Parts, 
Present J Love. Past, Loved. Perfect Participle, Loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 

h • Singular. Plural. 

If \,\ love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest {or you love). 2. Ye or you love. 

3. He loveth or loves. 3. They love. 



76 THE VERB. 

Past Tense {Preterit). 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst {or you loved). 2. Ye or you loved. 

3. He loved. 3. They loved. 

Future Tense {Predictive), 

1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou wilt love (you will ) o v -n i 

iQ^g^^ ^^ \ 2. Ye or you will lore. 

3. He will love. 3. They will love. 

FiUure Tense {Promissive). 

1. I will love. 1. We will love. 

2. Thou shalt love (or you ) o v i, n i 

shall love). ^ M 2. Ye or you shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

Present Perfect Tense. '«*»^ - 

1. I have loved. 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved (you have > o v i, i j 

loved). J ^' ^^ ^^ y^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^• 

3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. 
^1^ Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved (you ) « v« ^„ „^„ t.„;i i^„«;i 

had loved). \ 2- Y^ ^" y^^ ^^^ ^^^^^- 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense {Predictive), , ^*^ 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou wilt have loved (you ) o v mi i, i j 

will have loved). ^^ \ 2. Ye or you will have loved. 

3. He will have loved. 3. They will have loved. 

Future Perfect Tense {Promissive). 

1. I will have loved. 1. We will have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved ) o v , ^T,.,n u«„« ^^^r.A 

(you shall have loved). \ ^- ^^ '^ y°" ^'^^'^ ^^^« ^^^^"^ 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou {or you) love. 2. If ye or you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 



I 



(p 



THE VERB. 77 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2. If ye shall or will love. 
(If you shall or will love. ) If you shall or will love. 

3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. If I shall or will have 1. If we shall or will have 

loved. loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye shall or will have 

loved. loved. 

(If you shall or will have If you shall or will have 
loved.) loved. 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 
loved. . loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must love. 1. We may, can, or must love. 

2. Thou mayest, canst, or ) o v - .•. i 

must love. ^ 2. Ye may, can, or must love. 

^^oveo""^' '^"' "' ""'' \ ^°" ™'*^' ^^"' "'■'""'' ^°^'- 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 

love. love. 

Past Tense. ^^—^ 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should love. should love. 

2. Thou micrhtest, couldst, ) o v - x.*. ^A ^A 

wouldst: or shouldsi f 2- Ye might, could, would, or 
love. ) u V . 

(You might, could, would, You might, could, would, 
or should love.) or should love. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should love. or should love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have 

loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayest, canst, or 2. Ye may, can, or must have 

must have loved. loved. 

(You may, can, or must You may, can, or must 
have loved.) have loved, 

3. He may, can, or must 3. They may, can, or must 

have loved. have loved. 



78 THE VERB. 

Past Perfect Tense, 

Singular, Blural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should have loved. or should have loved. 

2. Thou mightest, couldst | ^ j^ ^ 1^ 

WloVed." ^'°"''i should have loVed. 
(You might, could, would, You might, could, would, or 
or should have loved.) should have loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present^ To love. Present Perfect, To have loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 

Sin,., 2. Love, or \ ];- tW ^,„,^ ,. ^^^^ ,, ^ Love ye^ 

3. Let him love. 3. Let them love. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

P^ixiPni T ^ •« 5 ^^^^ ^^ Perfect, Loved. 

± resem, i^ovmg. ^ Compound Perfect, Having loved. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved (you are ) ^ ye or you are loved. 

loved). > "^ 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

Past Tense, 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved (you ) ^ y^ ^^ ^^^^ j^^^^^ 

were loved). 5 •^ 

3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. 

Future Tense {Predictive). 
1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 

^* ^ wm bflovedY^"^ ^^'''' \ ^- ^^ ''" ^'''' ""'^^ ^^ ^''^^'^' 
3. He will be loved. 3. They will be loved. 

Future Tense {Prornissive). 
1. I Avill be loved. 1. We will be loved. 

^' ^shall be lovedT*^ ^^'°" \ ^- ^^ "'' ^°'' '''^" ^'^ ^"^''^ 
3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 



i 



THE VERB. 79 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved ) « v u u i j 

(you have been loved). \ ^- ^^ °^ y«" '^^^"^ ^"^"^ '°^«d. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense, 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved ) o v i, j v i j 

(you had been loved). \ ^' ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^° 1^^^^' 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense {Predictive), 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wilt have been ) o v -n t, v 

loved (you will have P' ^? "I/^^ ^^" ^^^" ^^'^ 
been loved). S ^^^^^• 

3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense {Promissive). 

1. I will have been loved. 1. We will have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been ) o v i, n i, v 

loved (you shall have \ ^- ^f '"■/°" ^'^^J' ''"^^ ^^^" 
been loved). S '°^'«'J- 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye be loved. 
(If you be loved.) If you be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense, 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If ye were loved. 
(If you were loved.) If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Future Tense, 

1. If I shall or will be loved. 1. If we shall or will be loved. 

2. If tho,r Shalt, or wilt be ) g. jf y, ^^^^^ „, ^i„ ^^ ^^^^^ 

(IfyJushallorwiUbe loved.) K 1°"! hall^«^wlll be 16ved. 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or^Mft-fee loved. 



^ 



80 THE VERB. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been 1. If we shall or will have 
loved. been loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have 2. If ye shall or will have 

been loved. been loved. 

(If you shall or will have If you shall or will have 
been loved.) been loved. 

3. If he shall or will have 3. If they shall or will have 

been loved. been loved. 

The other tenses of the subjunctive are the same in form 
as those of the indicative. ^ 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may, can, or must be 1. We may, can, or must be 

loved. loved. 

2. Thou mayest, canst, or 2. Ye may, can, or must be 

must be loved. loved. 

(You may, can, or must be You may, can, or must be 
loved.) loved. 

3. He may, can, or must be 3. They may, can, or must be 

loved. loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, 

should be loved. or should be loved. 

2. Thou lightest couldst, ^ y . ^ ^ 

Cd ' "^ \ ^'^"'^Id be loved. 

(You might, could, would You might, could, would 
or should be loved.) or should be loved. 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should be loved. or should be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must hare 

been loved. been loved. 

2. Thou mayest, canst, or 2. Ye may, can, or must have 

must have been loved. been loved. 

(You may, can, or must You may, can, or must have 
have been loved.) been loved. 

3. He may, can, or must have 3. They may, can, or must 

been loved. have been loved. 




THE VERB. 81 

Past Perfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. should have been loved. 

2. Thou mightest, couldst , ^ ^ j^ ^^ 

wouldst, or shouldst > u ia -i x. i a 

■ have be^n loved. ( should have been loved. 

(You might, could, would, or You might, could, would, or 
should have been loved.) should have been loved. 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. should have been loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Sing,, 2. Be ( Be thou loved. Plur,, 2. Be ( Be ye loved, 
loved, or \ Be you loved. loved, or ( Be you loved. 

3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. 

PAETICIPLES. 

c Past or Perfect, Loved. 
Present, Being loved. < Compound Perfect, Having 

( been loved. 

PROGRESSIVE FORMS. 

§ 76. The Progressive Form of the verb 
is employed to denote an unfinished action or 
state with definite time, as the common form is 
employed for indefinite time. It is composed 
of the present participle and some of the forms 
of the verb to he^ and, in the potential, of cer- 
tain auxiliary verbs. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, I am loving, thou art loving, etc. 
Past Tense, I was loving, thou wast loving, etc. 
Future, I shall be loving, thou wilt be loving, etc. 
Present Perfect, I have been loving, thou hast been loT- 
ing, etc. 

F 



82 THE VERB. 

Past Perfect, I had been loving, thou hadst been loving, etc. 
Future Perfect, I shall have been loving, thou wilt, etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The forms of the subjunctive are the same as those of the 
indicative and potential, with some conditional conjunction 
prefixed. The present and past tenses have double forms. 

Present Tense, If I am loving, if I be loving. 
Past Tense, If I was loving, if I were loving. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense, I may, can, or must be loving. 
Past Tense, I might, could, would, or should be loving. 
Present Perfect, I may, can, or must have been loving. 
Past Perfect, I might, could, would, or should have been 
loving. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, Be thou loving. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, To be loving. 
Present Perfect, To have been loving. 

EMPHATIC FOEMS. 

§ 77. The Emphatic Form represents an act 
or state asserted with emphasis. It is confined 
to the indicative and imperative mode in the 
active voice. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, I do love. Past Tense, 1 did love. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, Do thou love. 
§ 78. INTERROGATIVE FORMS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, Love I ? Do I love ? Am I loving? 

Past Tense, Loved I ? Did I love ? Was I loving ? 

Future Tense, Shall I or will I love ? Shall I or will I be 
loving ? 



THE VERB. 



83 



Present Perfect Tense^ Have I loved ? Have I been loving ? 
Past Perfect Tense, Had I loved ? Had 1 been loving ? 
Future Perfect, Shall I or will I have loved ? Shall I or 
will I have been loving ? 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present Tense, May I, can I, or must I love ? 
Pa5f Tense, Might I, could I, should I, or would I love ? 
Present Perfect Tense, May I, can I, or must I have loved ? 
Past Perfect, Might I, could I, would I, or should I have 
loved ? 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

§ 79. According to the common definition, 
an Irregular Verb is a verb which, does not 
form the preterit and perfect participle by the 
addition of d or ed. 

The number of irregular verbs depends on the rule adopt- 
ed for the formation of regular verbs. The more exclusive 
the rule, the more numerous will be the irregularities. The 
more general the rule, the fewer will be the irregularities. 
All the strong verbs are included in this definition, though 
they are, in fact, many of them regular. 



J. 



A LIST OF VERgS COMMONLY CA^riElED IRREGULAR. 

*resent. r^^^reterit. PretefiL Participle. 

(First Form.) (Second Form.) (First Form.) 



Abide, 

Am or be, 

Awake, 

Bake, 

Bear, /or-, 

Bear (produce), 
_^Beat, 
"Begin, 

Behold, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bet, 

Bid, for-, 

Bind, un-, re-, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Blend, 

Bless, 



abode, 

was, 

awoke, 

baked, 

bore, 

bore, 

beat. 



abided. 



awaked. 



beheld, 

bent, 

bereft, 

besouglit, 

bet, 

bade, 

*band, 

*bat, 

bled, 

blent, 

blest. 



*bare, \ 
*bare, 

begun, 

bended, 

bereaved, 

beseeched, 

betted, 

bid, 

bound, 

bit. 



blended, 
blessed, 



abode, 
been, 

baken, 

borne, 

born, 

beaten, 

begun, 

*beholden, 

bent, 

bereft, 

besought, 

bet, 

bidden, 

*bounden, 

bitten, 

bled, 

blent, 

blest. 



Participle. 

(Second Form ) 
abided. 



awaked- 
baked. 



beat. 



beheld. 

bended. 

bereaved, 

beseeched 

betted, 

bid. 

bound. 

bit. 



bJ landed, 
blessed. 



84 



THE VERB. 






Present. 



Blow, 

Break, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Build, 

Burn, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose, 



PreteHt. 
(First Form.) 
blew, 
broke, 
bred, 
brought, 
built, 
burnt, 
*brast, 
bought, 
cast, 
caught, 
*chode, 
chose, 



Preterit. 

(Second Form.) 



Cleave (to split), clove. 



^ Clc 



Cleave, 

Climb, 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

" ime, &(2-, over-y 

>st. 
Creep, 
Crow, 
Cut, 

Dare (venture). 
Deal, 
Delve, 
Dig, 
Dive, 

Do this^ un-, over 'J 
Draw, 
Dream, 
Dress, 
Drink, 
Drive, 
Dwell, 
Eat, 

Engrave, 
Fall, fee-, 
Feed, 
Feel, 
Fight, 
Find, 
Flee, 
Fling, 
Fly, 
Fold, 
Forget, 
Forsake, 
Freeae, 
Freight, 
Get, be-, for-^ 
Gild, 

Gird, be-, en-, un-^ 
Glide, 
Give, for-, mis-. 



*clave, 

*clomb, 

*clang, 

clad, 

cime, 

cost, 

*crope, 

crew, 

cut, 

durst, 

dealt, 

*dolve, 

dug, 

dove, 

did^ 

drew, 

dreamt, 

drest, 

drank, 

drove, 

dwelt, 

ate, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought," 

*fand, 

fled, 

*flang, 

flew, 

*forgot, 
forsook, 
froze. 



got, 

gilt, 

girt, 

*glode, 

gave. 



*brake, 



builded, 
burned, 
burst, 



*catched, 
chid, 



f*clave, ) 
t cleft, / 
cleaved, 
climbed, 
clung, 
clothed. 



Participle. 

(First Form.) 
blown, 
broken, 
bred, 
brought, 
built, 
burnt, 
*bursten, 
*boughten, 
cast, 
caught, 
chidden, 
chosen, 

cloven 



Participle. 

(Second Form^ 



broke. 



builded. 
burned. 
burst. 
bought. 



*catched, 
chid. 



cleft. 



crept, 
crowed. 



dared, 

dealed, 

delved, 

digged, 

dived. 



dreamed, 

dressed, 

drunk, 

*drave, 

dwelled, 

*eat, 

engraved. 



clung, 

clad, 

oJipie, 

cost, 

*crown, 
cut, 

dealt, 

*dolven, 

dug, 



cleaved, 
climbed. 



clothed. 



found, 

flung, 

folded, 
forgat. 



freighted, 

*gat, 

gilded, 

girded, 

glided. 



done, 

drSt^n, 

dreamt, 

drest, 

drunken, 

driven, 

dwelt, 

eaten, 

engraven, 

fallen, 

fed, 

felt, 

*foughten, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

flown, 

*folden, 

forgotten, 

forsaken, 

frozen, 

fraught, 

gotten, 

gilt, 

girt, 



crept, 
crowed, 

dared. 

dealed. 

delved. 

digged. 

dived. 



dreamed. 

dressed. 

drunk. 



dwelled. 

eat. 

engraved. 



given. 



fought. 



folded, 
forgot. 



freighted. 

got. 

gilded. 

girded. 

glided. 



THE VERB. 



85 



Present. 

Co, fore-^ under-^ 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Hang; 

Have, - 

Hear, over-^ 

Heave, 

Help, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, be-, up-, with- 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Know, fore-. 

Lade (to load), 

Lay, in-. 

Lead, m?s-, 

Leap, 

Learn, 

Leave, 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie (to recline), 

Lift, 
.Light, 

Load, wn-, over-, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Mean, 

Meet, 

Melt, 

Mow, 
** Pay, re-. 

Pen (to inclose), 

Prove, 

Put, 

Quit, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 
-JRise, a-, 

Rive, 

Run, out'i 

Saw, 

Say, im-, gain-, 

See, /ore-, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 



Preterit. 

(First Form.) 

went, 

*grove, 

*grand, 

grew, 

hung, 

had, 

beard, 

*hQve, 

*holp. 



Preterit. 
(Second Form.) 



hid, 
hit, 
, held, 
hurt, 
kept, 
knelt, 
knit, 
knew, 

laid, 

led, 

leapt, 

learnt, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

lay, 

lift, 

lit, 



lost, 

made, 

meant, 

met, 

*molt, 

paid, 

pent, 

proved, 

put, 

quit, 

read, 

rent, 

rid, 

rode, 

rang, 

rose. 



said, 

saw, 

sought, 

sod, 

sold, 



graved, 
ground, 



hanged, 



heaved, 
heT^ea, 
hewed. 



kneeled, 
knitted. 



laded, 



leaped, 
learned. 



lifted, 

lighted, 

loaded. 



*meaned, 



melted, 
mowed. 



penned. 



quitted, 
*redde. 



*rid, 

rung, 

*ris, 

riven, 

run, 

sawed. 



seethed. 



Participle. 
(First Form.) 

gone, 

graven, 

ground, 

grown, 

hung, 

had, 

heard, 

*hoven, 

*holpen, 

hewn, 

hidden, 

hit, 

holden, 

hurt, 

kept, 

knelt, 

knit, 

known, ' 

laden, 

laid, 

led, 

leapt, 

learnt, 

left, 

lent, 

let, 

lain, 

lift, 

lit, 

*loaden, 

lost, 

made, 

meant, 

met, 

*molten, 

mown, 

paid, 

pent, 

proven, 

put, 

quit, 

read, 

rent, 

rid, 

ridden, 

rung, 

risen," 

riven, 

run, 

sawn, 

said, 

seen, 

sought, 

sodden, 

sold, 



Partidjjle. 

(Second Form.) 



graved. 



hanged. 



heaved, 
helped, 
hewed, 
hid. 



held. 



kneeled, 
knitted. 



leaped, 
learned. 



lien, 
lifted, 
lighted, 
loaded. 



meaned. 



melted, 
mowed. 

penned, 
proved. 



quitted. 



rode, *rid. 



sawed. 



seethed. 



86 



THE VERB 



Present. 

Send, 

Set, he-^ 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shew, 

Shine, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, over-y 

Show, 

Shred, 

Shrink, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 



Slide, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak, he-^ 

Speed, 

Spell, mi8-^ 

Spend, mts-. 

Spill, ynis-^ 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, under- 

Stave, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

Strew, 

Stride, &g-, 

Strike, 

String, 
Strive, 
Strow, 
Swear, for-^ 

Sweat, 

Swell, 



Preterit. 
(First Form.) 
sent, 
set, 
shook, 
*shope. 



Preterit. 

(Second Form, 



*shore, 
shed, 

shone, 

shod, 

shot, 

shred, 

*shrank, 

shut, 

sang, 

sank, 

sate, 

slew, 

slept, 

*slode, 

*slang, 

*slank, 

slit, 

smelt, 

smote. 



*spoke, 

sped, 

spelt, 

spent, 

spilt, 

*8pan. 



split, 
spoilt, 
spread, 
sprang, 
-, vyith-^ stood, 
stove, 
stole, 
stuck, 
*8tang, 
*stank, 



strove, 

swore, 
*swet, 

*3W0ll, 



shaped, 
shaved, 
sheared, 

shewed, 
shined. 



showed, 
shrunk. 



sung, 
sunk, 

sat. 



slid, 

slung, 

slunk, 

slitted, 

smelled, 

*smit, 

sowed. 



speeded, 
spelled, 



spilled, 

spun, 

spit, 

splitted, 

spoiled. 



sprung. 



(*strake, > 
\*strook, j 



staved, 
*8tale, 

stung, 
stunk, 
strewed, 
*strid, 

struck, 

strung. 



Participle. 

) (First Form.) 
sent, 
set, 

shaken, 
shapen, 
shaven, 
shorn, 
shed, 
shewn, 
shone, 
shod, 
shot, 
shown, 
shred, 
shrunken, 
shut, 
*sungen, 
sunken, 
*sitten, 
slain, 
slept, 
slidden, 
slung, 
slunk, 
slit, 
smelt, 
smitten, 
sown, 
spoken, 
sped, 
spelt, 
spent, 
spilt, 
spun, 
*spitten, 
split, 
spoilt, 
spread, 
sprung, 
stood, 
stove, 
stolen, 
stuck, 
stung, 
stunk, 
strown, 
stridden, 



Participle. 

(Second Foriu.| 



strewed, 

*sware, 

sweat, 

*sweated, 

swelled, 




shined. 



shrunk. 

sung, 
sunk, 
sat. 



slid. 



slitted. 

smelled. 

*smit. 

sowed. 

spoke. 

speeded. 

spelled. 



spilled. 

spit. 

splitted. 

spoiled. 



staved. 



strewn, 
strid. 



stricken, struck. 

strung, • 

striven, 
strown, 
sworn, 

y sweaten, 

swollen, 



strowed. 



THE VEEB. 



87 



under- 
mis- 



Present. 

Swim, 
Swing, 
Swink, 
Take, he-, 
over-, re 
Teach, mis-^ un-, 
Tear, 

Tell, fore-. 
Think, be-j 
Thrive, 
Throw, over-. 
Thrust, 
Tread, re-. 
Wax, 
Wear, 

Weave, wn-, 
Wed, 
Weep, 
Wend, 
Wet, 
Whet, 
Win, 

Wind, un- 

Work, 
Wreathe, 
Wring, 
W^rite, 



Preterit. 

(First Form.) 
swam, 
*swang, 
*sifank5 

'I took, 

taught, 

tore, 

told, 

thought, 

throve, 

threw, 

thrust, 

trod, 



Preterit 
(Second Form.) 
swum, 
swung, 
swunk. 



wore, 

wove, 

wed, 

wept, 

went, 

wet, 

whet, 

*wan, 



J* wand, > 

"^wound, / 

wrought, 



wrung, 
wrote, 



*tare. 



thrived. 



*trad, 

waxed, 

*ware, 

wedded, 



Participle. Participle. 

(First Form.) (Second FormJ 

swum. 

swang, 

swinken, swunk. 

taken, 

taught, 

torn, 

told, 

*thoughten, 

thriven, 

thrown, 

thrust, 

trodden, 

waxen, 

worn, 

woven, 

wed, 

wept, 



wetted, 

whetted, 

won, 

winded, 

worked, 
wreathed, 
wringed, 
*writ. 



thought, 
thrived. 



trod, 
waxed. 



wet, 

whet, 

won. 



wedded. 

wended. 

wetted. 

whetted. 



wound, winded. 

wrought, worked, 

wreathen, wreathed, 

wrung, wringed, 

written, *writ. 



DERIVED VERBS. 

§ 80. Four classes of Derived Verbs, as opposed to 
Primitive, deserve notice. 

I. Those ending in -en ; as, Soften, whiten, strengthen. 

II. Transitive verbs, derived from intransitives by a 
change of the vowel of the root. 



Primitive Intransitive Form. 

Rise, 
Lie, 



Derived Transitive Form. 

raise, 
lay. 

III. Verbs derived from nouns by a change of accent ; as, 
to survey', from a sur'vey, 

IV. Verbs formed from nouns by changing a final surd 
consonant into its corresponding sonant; as, Use, to use, 
pronounced uze ; breath, to breathe, pronounced hreadhe ; 
half, to halve; grass, to graze. See English Language^ 
<J 357. 



THE VEEB. 



EEFLECTIYE VERBS. 



I 



§ 81. Reflective Verbs are those which are followed 
by reflective pronouns. 

I. Those formed from transitive verbs, in which the agent 
truly and properly acts upon himself; as, To examine one's 
self'; to honor one's self^ etc. 

II. Those formed from transitive verbs, in which the 
agent does not truly and properly act upon himself; as, 
To boast one's self; to delight one's self; to possess one's 
self etc. 

III. Verbs like those of the first and second classes, which 
are no longer used in their ordinary transitive meaning ; as, 
To behave one's self 

IV. Many verbs are construed with a reflective pronoun 
of the indirect or remote object ; as, To imagine one's self 

V. Many reflective verbs are construed with a second ac- 
cusative of the factitive relation ; as, To think one's self wor- 
thy, i. e., to think that one's self is worthy. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

^ 82. A Defective Verb is one which wants some of 
the principal parts, as in the following list : 

Present. Preterit. Past Participle. 

Can, could, 

May, might, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Quoth, quoth, 

Wis, wist, 

Wit or wot, wot, — 



Beware, 



yode. 



Could is irregular, for the / is not a part of the original 
word. 

May, shall, will. See ^ 64. 

Must is never varied in termination. 

Ought is varied in the second person singular; thou 
oughtest. 



THE ADVERB. 89 

Beware is used only in the imperative and infinitive 
modes. 

Quoth is used chiefly in the first and third persons singu- 
lar of the present and preterit tenses. It has the peculiar- 
ity of preceding its pronoun. Instead of saying I qmth, 
he quoth, we, say quoth /, quoth he. 

Wis is obsolete ; wist is not much used. It is, in its 
present form, a regular preterit from wis = know. 

Wit, Anglo-Saxon witan, to know, is confined to the 
phrase in the infinitive, to wit— namely, Latin videlicet. 
Wit appears to be the root ; wot, a strong preterit. 

Hark is used only in the imperative mode. 

Am, be, was, are strictly defective verbs, though usually 
classed as irregular; just as good, better, best, furnish in- 
stances of defectiveness in comparison, though commonly 
considered as furnishing an instance of irregular comparison. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

Mention the classes of the derived verbs, 
with examples. 

What are reflective verbs ? 

Give examples of the different classes. 

What are defective verbs ? 

Mention the defective verbs. 

Write three sentences in each of which there 
is a derived verb ; and three in each of which 
there is a reflective verb ; and three in each of 
which there is a defective verb. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE ADVERB. 

§ 83. An Adverb is a word which qualifies 
a verb, or adjective, or another adverb; as, 
"John struck Thomas rasldyf^ "the sun shines 



90 THE ADVERB. 

hnglitly f ^'he is more prudent than his neigh- 
bor ;" ^' he is running very rapidly.'' 

Or an Adverb is a word which can not by itself form g 
constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can, in a 
complex proposition, combine with verbs, adjectives, and 
other adverbs, to modify their meaning; as, ''He reads 
correctly;''^ *^he was exceedingly careful;" "he does tokra^ 
blywoiV See §2. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

§ 84. Certain adverbs are capable of taking 
an inflection, namely, that of the comparative 
and the superlative degrees; as, Well^ better^ 
best; ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; soo7i, 
sooner, soonest. 

Adverbs ending in ly are compared by more and most ; 
as, Brightly^ more brightly, most brightly. 

Other adverbs generally, in the meaning they express, 
have no degrees of intensity, and are therefore incapable of 
comparison. 

CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

§ 85. Adverbs are usually divided into various classes, ac- 
cording to the nature of the modification which they denote ; 
as, Adverbs of Time, Place, Number^ Degree, Manner. 
This division is logical rather than etymological. 

I. Adverbs of Time, or those which ansvver to the ques- 
tion When ? or How often ? 

1. Of time present : Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, 

2. Of time past: Yesterday, already, lately, heretofore, hith- 
erto, since, ago, erewhile, erst, 

3- Of time to come : Henceforth, hereafter, by-and-by, soon, 
erelong. 

4. Of time relative : When, then, while, whilst, before, after, 
till, until, bet lines, early, late. 

5. Of time absolute : Ever, alivays, aye, never. 

6. Of time repeated : Often, oft, sometimes, 'seldom, rarely. 



THE ADVERB. 91 

II. Adverbs of Place are those which answer to the 
questions Where f Whither? or Whence f These three words 
answer to the idea, 1. Of rest in a place; 2. The idea of 
motion toward sl place ; 3. The idea of motion jfrom sl place. 

Other Adverbs of Place are, Yonder, above, below, about, 
around, somewhere, any where, elsewhere, every ivhere, nowhere, 
wherever, ivithin, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout ; 
In, up, down, bach, forth, inward, upward, downward, back- 
ivard, forward ; Away, out. 

III. Adverbs of Number are those which answer to the 
question How often? as, Once, twice, thrice, etc. Besides 
these, there are, Firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, etc. 

IV. Adverbs of Degree are those which answer to the 
question How much ? as, Much, little, too, very, right, infinite- 
ly, scarcely, hardly, merely, far, besides, chiefly, only, mostly, 
quite, dear, stark, partly, almost, altogether, all, clear, enough^ 
so, as, even, how, however, howsoever, everso, something, noth- 
ing, any thing, etc. 

V. Adverbs of Mannt.r are those which answer to the 
question How ? (a) Adverbs of Quality ; as. Well, ill, fain, 
lief, wisely, foolishly. (6) Of Affirmation ; as. Ay, yes, yea, 
truly, verily, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, certes, for- 
sooth, amen, (c) Of Negation; as, Nay, not, no, noivise. 
(d) Of Doubt ; as. Perhaps, possibly, perchance, peradventure. 
The following may also be considered as Adverbs of Man- 
ner, though some of them may be included in another class, 
namely, Thus, how, somehow, however, howsoever, like, else, 
so, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, aloud. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

Give the definition of the adverb, and origin 
of the term. 

Give the classification of adverbs. 

What question do adverbs of time answer ? 

What question do adverbs of place answer? 

What question do adverbs of number an- 
swer ? 

What question do adverbs of manner an- 
swer ? 



92 THE PKEPOSITION. 

Which luords are adverbs in the following sen 
fences ? 

Time flows rapidly. 

Now is the accepted time. 

The metal was partly melted. 

He has wandered somewhere. 

He thrice refused a kingly crown. 

Why is rapidly an adverb ? 

What kind of adverb is it ? 

Why is now an adverb? ard what kind of 
an adverb is it ? 

Why is partly an adverb? and what kind 
of an adverb is it ? 

Why is thrice an adverb ? and what kind of 
an adverb is it ? 

Why is somewhere an adverb? and what 
kind of an adverb is it ? 

Write a sentence in which there is an adverb 
of time ; and one in which there is an adverb 
oi place; and one in which there is an adverb 
of number ; and one in which there is an adverb 
of degree ; and one in which there is an adverb 
of manner. 



CHAPTER Yin. 
THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 86. A Preposition is o> word which con- 
nects an object with a verb or an adjective, 
and shows the relation between them ; as/^ He 
went through New York;" ''he belongs tc no 
part}^;" ''he is wise/o?- himself." 



THE PREPOSITION. 93 

Or a Preposition is a word which can not by itself form 
the constituent part of a simple proposition, but vv^hich can 
enter into a complex proposition in combination with a noun 
or pronoun, to express some relation ; as, Socrates, the son 
of Sophroniscus, was born at Alopece. Of in this case, 
not only connects the word son with the word Sophroniscus, 
but it also shows the relation between them. At connects 
Alopece with the verb was born, and shows the relation be- 
tween them. See § 2. 

The relations expressed by prepositions are various ; such 
as the relations of causality, of time, of locality. 

The preposition, Latin prcepositio, was so called because 
it was placed be/ore the substantive to which it refers. 

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 87. 1. At, after (the comparative of aft), by, down, far, 
from, in, of on, over, past, round, since, till, to, through, under, 
up, with. These have been called simple prepositions. 

2. Aboard, above, about, across, against, along, amid, amidst, 
among, amongst, around, athwart. These are formed by pre- 
fixing a. 

3. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, 
betwixt, beyond. These are formed by prefixing be, 

4. Into, out of throughout, toward, towards, upon, until, into, 
underneath, within, without. These are formed by compound- 
ing two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb. 

5. Bating^ barring, concurring, during, excepting, notivith- 
standing, regarding, respecting, touching. These were origi- 
nally participles, and they can be treated as participles. 

6. Save and except can be treated as verbs in the impera- 
tive mode. Nigh, near, next, opposite, can be viewed as 
prepositions in construction, or as adjectives, the preposition 
to being understood. Along may be considered as a prep- 
osition in certain combinations ; as, ' ' He went along the 
river." But, when equivalent to except, has the force of a 
preposition. 

7. There are also certain prepositional phrases ; as. Ac- 
cording to, in respect of; as. On account of the love=propter 
amorem. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. 

What is a preposition ? 



94 THE CONJUNCTION. 

What is the derivation of the term ? 

What are some of the relations which prep- 
ositions express? 

Mention some of the simple prepositions, and 
some of the compound prepositions, and some 
of the prepositions that were originally partici- 
ples, and some that were verbs of the impera- 
tive mode, and some that were adjectives, and 
some of the prepositional phrases. 

Which are prepositions in the following sen- 
tences ? 

By rail- way John came from Philadelphia to 
New York. 

Of his own accord he hastened to meet us 
on our way. 

We were overjoyed that he was prosper- 
ous in his circumstances, after having passed 
through great misfortunes. 

Write four sentences in which there shall he 
one or more prepositions. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

§ 88. A Conjunction is a word which con- 
nects two sentences, or like parts of a sentence; 
as, ^'John writes and Thomas reads;" ^^I will 
visit him if he desires it;" "two aricZ two are 
four." 

Or a Conjunction is a word that can connect two prop- 
ositions without making a part of either ; as, * * The sua 



THE CONJUNCTION. 95 

shines and the sky is clear;" **you admire him because he 
is brave." 

The word conjunction is from the Latin con, with, and 
junctio, VL joining = joining together. 

THE COMMON CLASSIFICATION. 

§ 89. I. The Copulative. And, as, both, because, even, 
for, if, that, then, since, seeing, so, but. 

XL The Disjunctive. Although, but, either, neither, ex- 
cept, lest, or, nor, notwithstanding, provided, than, though, 
whereas, whether. 

Some of these conjunctions can be arranged in pairs 
which are Correlative ; as, As — as ; as — so ; if— then ; either 
— or; neither — nor; whether — or; although or though — yet. 
The one conjunction in each couplet is correlative to the 
other. 

QUESTIONS. 

Give the definition of a conjunction, and the 
derivation of the term. 

Give the common classification, with instan- 
ces of copulative, disjunctive, and correlative 
conjunctions. 

Mention the conjunctions in the following sen- 
tences : 

Both Charles and John were at school. 

He fled because he was a coward. 

Charles is a better boy than John. 

If it rains we shall not set off on our jour- 
ney. 

Write three sentences in which there are copu- 
lative conjunctions^ and three in which there ar$> 
disjunctive conjunctions. 



96 THE INTERJECTION. 



CHAPTEE X. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

§ 90. An Interjection is a word whicli 
can neither form the part of a proposition, nor 
connect two different propositions, but is thrown 
in to express some sudden thought or emotion 
of the mind ; as, Oh ! pshaw ! alas ! 

The word Interjection is from the Latin word 
interjeciWj a throwing in. 

etymological analysis. 
§ 91. Etymological Analysis is that proc- 
ess by which each word in a sentence is named 
and described according to its etymological re- 
lations, as unfolded in the preceding pages. 

EXAMPLES. 

In using the following examples, the pupils are expected, 
I. To point out all the Nouns, and give a definition of the 
noun ; II. To point out all the Adjectives, and give a defini- 
tion of the adjective ; III. To point out the Articles, and 
give a definition of the article ; IV. To point out all the 
Pronouns, and give a definition of the pronoun ; V. To point, 
out all the Verbs, and give a definition of the verb ; VI. To 
point out all the Adverbs, and give a definition of the ad- 
verb; VII. To point out all the Prepositions, and give a 
definition of the preposition ; VIII. To- point out all the 
Conjunctions, and give a definition of the conjunction ; IX. 
To point out all the Interjections, and give a definition of 
the interjection. 



THE INTERJECTION. 97 



MODEL. 

He who tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he un- 
dertakes ; for he must be forced to tell twenty more to main- 
tain that one. — Pope. 

Lie and task are nouns. A Noun is a word, etc. See § 3. 

Sensible and great are adjectives. An Adjective is a word, 
etc. See § 17. 

A is the indefinite article. The Article a, etc. See § 33. 

He and who are pronouns in the nominative case. A 
Pronoun, etc. See § 35. 

Tells, is, tmdertaJces, must be forced, to teli, to maintain, 
, are verbs. Tells is a verb, from the ancient or strong verb 
tell, told, told, in the active voice, in the indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number. See § 75. 

Undertakes is a verb, from the strong verb undertake, un- 
dertook, undertaken, compounded of under and take, in the 
active voice, in the indicative mode, present tense, third 
person, singular number. See § 75. 

Must be forced is a verb, from the weak verb force, forced, 
forced, in the passive voice, indicative mode, present tense, 
third person, singular number. 

To tell is a verb, as before, in the infinitive mode, present 
tense. 

To maintain is a verb, from the weak verb maintain, main- 
tained, maintained, in the infinitive mode, present tense. 

Not is an adverb of negation ; how is an adverb of man- 
ner. See § 85. 

To is a preposition. See § 86. 

For is a conjunction. See § 88. 



ANALYZE THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES. 

1. Conversation enriches the understanding, but solitude 
is the school of genius. — Gibbon. 

2. A spirit of innovation is generally the result of a self- 
ish temper and confined view^s. People will not look for- 
ward to posterity who never look backward to their ances- 
tors. — Burke. 

3. High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, 

Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
Showers on her kings harbaric pearls and gold, 

G 



98 THE INTEEJECTION. 

Satan exalted sat, by merit raised 
To that bad eminence. — Milton. 

4. The crying sin of all governments is that they meddle 
injuriously with human affairs, and obstruct the processes 
of nature by excessive legislation. — W. E. Channing. 

5. We doubt whether a man ever brings his faculties to 
bear with their full force upon any subject imtil he writes 
upon it for the instruction or edification of others. To place 
it more clearly before others, he feels a necessity of viewing 
it more vividly himself. — W. E. Channing. 

6. Higher laws than those of taste determine the con- 
sciousness of nations. Higher laws than those of taste de- 
termine the general forms of the expression of that con- 
sciousness. Let the downward age of America find its or- 
ators, and poets, and artists to erect its spirit, or grace and 
Boothe its dying. Be it ours to go up, with Webster, to the 
Rock, the Monument, the Capitol, and bid **the distant 
nations hail!" — Rurus Choate. 

SYNTHESIS. 

1. Compose a sentence in which there shall be a proper 
noun and a common noun. 

2. Compose a sentence in which there shall be an abstract 
noun, a collective noun, and a correlative noun. 

3. Compose a sentence in which there shall be a particip- 
ial noun, a diminutive noun, and a material noun. 

4. Compose a sentence in which there shall be a com- 
mon adjective and a proper adjective ; and one in which 
there shall be a numeral adjective and a pronominal adjec- 
tive ; and one in which there shall be a participial «idjective 
and a compound adjective. 

5. Compose a sentence which shall exhibit the different 
degrees of comparison. 

6. Compose a sentence in which there shall be two dif- 
ferent kinds of articles. 

7. Compose a sentence which shall have in it the several 
personal pronouns ; and one that shall have in it the demon- 
strative pronouns ; and one that shall have in it the relative 
pronouns, and one that shall have in it the interrogative 
pronouns, and one that shall have in it an adjective pro- 
noun ; and one that shall have in it adverbial pronouns. 

8. Compose a sentence that shall have in it a transitive verb 
in the active voice ; and also one having in it a verb in the 



THE INTEEJECTION. 99 

passive voice ; and also one having in it a verb in the future 
perfect tense ; and also one in which there shall be a verb 
in the infinitive mode; also one in which there shall be a 
strong verb and a weak verb ; also one in which there shall 
be a reflective verb ; and also one in which there shall be an 
impersonal verb and a defective verb. 

9. Compose a sentence having in it an adverb, a prepo- 
sition, a conjunction, and an interjection. 



SYNTACTICAL FORMS IN THE ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER L 

DEFINITIONS. 

§ 92. Syntax treats of the arrangement and 
combination of words in propositions and sen- 
tences. 

Etymology deals with the forms of single 
words, and teaches the office and power of the 
different parts of speech. Syntax deals with 
groups of words, and teaches how to combine 
the several parts of speech together in propo- 
sitions and sentences. 

Syntactical Fokms are combinations of 
words viewed only in their relation to each 
other, according to the laws of the language. 
Thus, *^0f government" is a syntactical form, 
in which the preposition governs the noun. 
*^A wise son" is a syntactical form, in which 
the article "a" and the adjective **wise" be- 
long to the substantive *'son." Syntactical 
forms are either sentences, or members, or 
clauses, or phrases, or any two words related 



DEFINITIONS. 101 

to each other in the way of agreement and gov- 
ernment. 

Concord is the agreement which one word 
has with another in Gender, Number, Case, or 
Person. 

Government is that power which one word 
has over another in directing its Mode, Tense, 
or Case. 

Convertibility. — In Syntax, one part of 
speech is often used for another, and may 
therefore be said to be convertible^ as in this 
example, To err is human— error is human. 
The word err is a verb, and yet it is convert- 
ed from its primary use into a noun. In hke 
manner, the Participle is used as a substan- 
tive; as, Erring is dangerous=error is danger- 
ous. The Adjective is converted into a sub- 
stantive; as. The evils of life; the goods of for- 
tune. So an Adverb, a Preposition, or a Con- 
junction can be used for a noun; as. One long 
now—jpresent time; he said /rem, not to; none 
of your ifs. In these examples, now^ from^ and 
if are used as Substantives. In like manner, 
a Preposition can be converted into an Adjec- 
tive ; as, A through ticket. 

Grammatical Equivalents. — When one 
phrase or word can take the place of another 
phrase or word in a sentence without materi- 



102 DEFINITIONS. 

ally changing tlie meaning of the sentence, it 
is a Grammatical Equivalent of the other: To 
err is ]iuman^= error is human. The sign of 
equality used in mathematics (=i) is the sign 
in grammar for Grammatical Equivalents. 

A Sentence is the expression of a thought 
in words. A declarative sentence is the same 
as a proposition. Sentences may consist either 
of one proposition, or of two or more proposi- 
tions connected together. A sentence consist- 
ing of one proposition is called a Simple Sen- 
tence; aSj ^'I study my lesson." A sentence 
consisting of two or more propositions is called 
a Compound Sentence; as, *' Industry procures 
a competence, and frugality preserves it." 

Sentences are Declarative; as, ^^I am wri- 
ting." Interrogative; as, '^ Where am I?" Im- 
perative; as, ^^Be quiet." Conditional; as, *^If 
he should grieve." Exclamatory; as, **0 
wretched man that I am!" 

questions. 

What is Syntax as distinguished from Ety» 
mology ? 

What are Syntactical forms ? 
What is Concord ? 
What is Government ? 
What is Convertibility? 
Give illustrations. 



DEFINITIONS. 103 

What is a Grammatical Equivalent ? 
AVhat is a Sentence ? 
Mention the kinds of sentences. 
Furnish an illustration of the different kinds 
of sentences. 

GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 

§ 93. The thing spoken of in a proposition is the Subject. . 

The Grammatical Subject is a noun, or some word stand- 
ing for a noun. The Logical Subject consists of the Gram- 
matical Subject and its various modifications. 

The Grammatical Subject is the same as the Logical Sub- 
ject, when the latter is a simple term or single word; as, 
'-''God is great." Here the Grammatical Subject of the 
verb is and the Logical Subject are the same, namely, God, 

When the Logical Subject is complex, consisting of a 
combination of ivords, the Grammatical Subject is the lead- 
ing word in that combination. "Alexander, the son of 
Philip, was the conqueror of Darius." Here Alexander, the 
son of Philip, is the Logical Subject, being a complex term; 
and Alexander, the leading word, is the Grammatical Sub- 
ject. Alexander, who conquered Darius, was the son of 
Philip. Here Alexander, who conquered Darius, is the Log- 
ical Subject, and Alexander is the Grammatical Subject. 

GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 

§ 94. That which is said of the subject in a proposition is 
called the Predicate. 

The Grammatical Predicate is a common verb, or else it 
is a noun or an adjective following the verb am. 

The Logical Predicate is the Grammatical Predicate 
with its modifications. In Logic, the verb am is called the 
Copula. 

The Grammatical Predicate (Latin predicare, to assert) 
is the same as the Logical Predicate, when the Logical 
Predicate is contained in a common verb, or when the Log- 
ical Predicate is a simple term or single word; as, '*He 
runs ;^^ ** he is an orator;" **he is z^ise." Here the Gram- 
matical predicates are the same as the Logical predicates. 

But when the Logical Predicate is a complex term, and 



104 DEFIKITIONS. 

made up of a combination of words, the Grammatical Pred- 
icate is the leading word in that combination; as, "The 
Scriptures are worthy of our confidence,^'' Here worthy of 
our confidence is the Logical Predicate, and worthy is the 
Grammatical Predicate. 

Of a subject we may predicate, 1. An action; as, **He 
loves y 2. A quality; as, *'Gold is heavy.'''' 3. Identity; 
as, "Iron is Si mineraV In these three cases there is, in 
the first, a verb ; in the second, an adjective ; in the third, 
a substantive, which are used as predicates. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the Subject of a proposition? 
What is a Grammatical Subject? 
What is a Logical Subject? 
Furnish illustrations of each. 
What is the Predicate of a proposition ? 
What is the Grammatical Predicate ? 
What is the Logical Predicate ? 
Furnish illustrations of each. 
What three things can we predicate of a 
Subject? 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

§ 95. I. Ellipsis, an omission, is the omission of some word 
or words in a sentence necessary to a full and rep^ular con- 
struction; as, "The heroic virtues I admire:" which is here 
omitted. *^He (Marat) three times changed the title of his 
journal; its spirit, never." Here he changed is omitted. 
'* Better be hurried forward for a season on the wings of 
the tempest, than stagnate in a death-like calm, fatal alike 
to intellectual and moral progress."— Prescott. 

II. Zeugma, a joining, is a species of ellipsis by which 
an adjective or verb which is put in construction with a 
nearer word is, by way of supplement, referred to one more 
remote ; as, " They wear a garment like that of the Scyth- 
ians, but a language peculiar to themselves." 

III. Pleonasm, fullness, is a redundancy of words : 



DEFINITIONS. 105 

** Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the ichiversal 
esteem and love of all men.''^ Here universal is redundant, 
or the and of all men are redundant. 

IV. Enallage, change, is the use of one gender, num- 
ber, case, person, tense, mode, or voice for another; as, 
**He begun to write," for ''he began to write." 

V. Hyperbaton, transgression, is the transposition of 
words out of their natural and grammatical order; as, 
"All price beyond," instead of -'beyond all price." 

VI. Hypallage, change, is an interchange of construc- 
tion ; as, '^ His coward lips did from their color fly, ^'' instead 
of " the color did fly from his coward lips.'''' 

VII. Anastrophe, inversion, is a species of Hyperbaton, 
by which we place last, and perhaps at a great distance, 
what, according to the common order, should have been 
placed first. The beginning of Paradise Lost is an exam- 
ple of that figure : 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly Muse !" 

The natural order of the words in this passage is. Heavenly 
Muse, sing of man's first disobedience, etc. 

VIII. Hysteron Proteron, latter, former, is a species 
of Hyperbaton, by which that which is first done is last 
mentioned; as, "//e was bred and born in Boston f^ " Our 
father is in good health ; he is yet alive.^^ 

QUESTIONS. 

What is Ellipsis? 
Give the illustration. 
What is Zeugma ? 
Give the illustration. 
What is Pleonasm ? 
Give the illustration. 
What is Bnallage ? 
Give the illustration. 
What is Hyperbaton ? 
Give the illustration. 



106 DEFINITIONS. 

What is Hypallage ? 
Give the illustration. 
What is Anastrophe ? 
Give the illustration. 
What is Hysteron Proteron ? 
Give the illustration. 



EXERCISES UNDER CHAPTER I. 

Name the following sentences, according to § 92. 

*'He loves his country." **Life is short, and art is 
long." ''He spoke with energy." "Will he visit Pales- 
tine?" "Be faithful unto death." "If he should arrive 
in time." "V^hat converse passed between us two in all 
those shadowy solitudes !" 

Point out hrst the Propositions, next the Logical Subject 
and Predicate, and then the Grammatical Subject and Pred- 
icate in each of the following sentences : 

1. The Christian ministry is the worst of all trades, but 
the best of all professions. 

Model a. Here are two propositions. The Christian min- 
istry is the Logical Subject of each proposition, expressed oi- 
understood. The worst of all trades is the Logical Predi- 
cate of the first, and the best of all professions is the Log- 
ical Predicate of the second. The Grammatical Subject of 
the two propositions is the ministry ; and the Grammatical 
Predicate of the first is the worsts and of the second is the 
best, 

2. Good-nature, like a bee, collects honey from every 
herb. Ill-nature, like a spider, sucks poison from the 
sweetest flower. 

Model b. Here Good-nature^ like a bee, is the Logical 
Subject of the first proposition, and collects honey from every 
herb is the Logical Predicate ; it being understood that the 
verb collect is equivalent to is collecting, is being the copula. 
The Logical Subject of the second proposition is Ill-nature, 
like the spider, and the Logical Predicate is collects^is col- 
lecting poison from the sweetest flowers. The Grammatical 
Subject of the first is Good-nature, and the Grammatical 
Predicate is collects. The Grammatical Subject of the sec- 
ond is Ill-nature, and the Grammatical Predicate is sucks. 
The copula h not regarded in Syntax. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 107 

3. The intellect of the wise is like glass; it admits the 
light of heaven and reflects it. 

4. A speech being a matter of adaptation, and having to 
win opinions, should contain a little for the few, and a great 
deal for the many. 

5. The virtue of paganism was strength ; the virtue of 
Christianity is obedience. 

Give names and definitions of the following figures in 
Syntax : 

1. Who stabs my name would stab my person too, 
Did not the hangman's axe lie in his way. 

2. His genteel and agreeable manners have made him a 
universal favorite of every body. 

3. The hollow sound 
Sung in the leaves, the forest shook around, 

Air blackened, rolled the thunder, groaned the ground. 

4. When first thy sire, to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed. 

5. In descending the hill, he gave the reins to his horse 
and his fury. 

6. Last Whitsuntide he was well and alive. 

7. The skipping king — he ambled up and down. 

8. Not in the legions 
Of horrid hell can come a devil more damned 
In ills to top Macbeth. 



CHAPTER II. 

SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



NOMINATIVE CASE. 

§ 96. EuLE I. — A Noun used either s^s the 

Subject or the Predicate of a finite verb is 

in the Nominative Case; as, ^^ Man reasons;" 

^'he is the architect of his own character." 

The leading: rules under the Noun apply also to Pronouns. 
What is peculiar to the Pronoun is given under the rules for 
the Pronoun. The words Subject and Predicate, without a 



108 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

qualifying epithet, are, in Syntax, used in the Grammatical 
sense, though the Logical sense is the primary one. 

Note I.^A Noun with a Participle, used Independently 
of the Grammatical construction into which it logically en- 
ters, is in the nominative case absolute ; as, ' ' He being dead, 
we shall live;" 'Uhe king having arrived, the soldiers were 
drawn up in battle array." 

A noun and a participle thus used in the nominative ab- 
solute form is an abridged sentence, and may be introduced 
into the general construction by a conjunction or adverb de- 
noting time, cause, condition, or accompaniment; as, '^The 
two armies being thus employed, Caelius began to publish sev- 
eral violent and odious laws"==*' While the two armies were 
thus employed, Caelius began," etc. 

Note II. — A Noun used in Direct Address is in the nom- 
inative case independent; as, " Judgment, thou art fled to 
brutish beasts!" '•'•John, come hither." This last example 
is equivalent to the vocative case in the Latin language. 

Note III. — A Nominative without its intended verb 
sometimes occurs in a certain abrupt mode of writing; as, 
*' These men — how I detest them !" 

*' They routed, drank, and merry made, 
Till all his gold it waxed thin, 
And then his friends they slunk away, 
And left the unthrifty heir of Linne." 

^' Your fathers, whare are they? and the prophets, do they 
live forever?" "Bad men they often honor virtue at the 
bottom of their heart." Superfluous nominatives should be 
avoided in common language. 

Note IV. — A Noun in the nominative without a verb is 
sometimes found in Exclamatory sentences ; " But, oh their 
end, their dreadful endP^ 

'* A steed ! a steed of matchless speed, 
A sword of metal keene ! 
All else to noble hearts is drosse, 
All else on earth is meane."— Motheiiwell. 

Note V. — Nouns used as titles of Books, and names of 
Places and of Persons, are very often in the nominative 
without a verb ; as, "Chambers's Cyclopaedia f^ "the Astor 
Housey These expressions are elliptical. 

Note VI. — In Poetry, a Noun in the nominative without 
a verb may sometimes be found, chiefly in those cases where 
the omitted verb would express an Address or Answer; as, 
*' To whom thus Michael : Judge not what is best 
By pleasure." — Milton. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 109 

Note VII. — A Noun in the nominative case without a 
verb is very frequently found in the Answer to a Question ; 
as, *'Who invented the electro - magnetic telegraph?" 
^^ Morse'' (invented it). Here the ellipsis is supplied. 
'*Who first drew lightning from the clouds ?" *' FranklinJ'^ 



EXEECISES IN SYNTAX. 

1. In these exercises a part of the examples 
have the letters C. S. affixed to them, to indi- 
cate Correct Syntax. This class of examples are 
intended to illustrate the corresponding rule or 
note, and impress it on the memory of the learn- 
er. The Teacher, after the example has been 
read, is expected to ash the Pupil to state the rule 
or note^ and also its particular application to the 
example. Thus the rule is made to explain the 
syntax of the example, and the example to il- 
lustrate the meaning of the rule. 

2. A part of the examples have the letters 
F. S. affixed to them, to indicate False Syntax. 
Examples of this class the learner is expected to 
correct^ and to give the ride or note for the cor- 
rection, as before. 

3. A part of the examples have the sign of 
equality (=:) affixed to them, to indicate Gram- 
matical Equivalents, which the pupil is expect- 
ed to give. The practice of finding grammatical 
equivalents^ if Ijersevered in^ will he of great value 
in giving the pupil command of language. See 
§92. 



110 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

4. It is also earnestly urged upon the Teach- 
er that he should require the Pupils to select exam- 
ples from other hooks under each rule and note. 
This will both test and increase their knowledge 
of the rule or note in its practical application. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE I. 

NOMINATIVE CASE. 

Rule I. — a, God tempers the wiild t^ the shoni lamb. 
C. S. (In this example, God is the Subject of the verb tem- 
pers, and is in the nominative case.) 

h. Truth is the daughter of Time. C. S. Here daughter 
is the Predicate of the verb is, and is in the nominative case. 

c. Penn, despairing of relief in Europe, bent the whole 
energy of his mind to accomplish the establishment of a free 
government in the New World. — Bancroft. C. S. 

d. Brutus was,^ from his }^outh up, a student of philosophy, 
and well versed in the systems of the Greeks. C. S. 

e. Them are the books imported for the Astor Library. 
F. S. , C( 

/. 1^ The nations not so blessM as thee '7 

Must, in their turn, to tyrants fall ; 
While thou shalt flourish great and free, 
The dread and envy of them all. — Thomson. F. S, 

Note I. — a. At length, the Russians being masters of the 
field of battle, our troops retired, the uproar ceased, and a 
mournful silence ensued. C. S. 

b. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. C. S. 

c. The atmosphere's being clear, and my sight good, I be- 
held the ship in the far distance approaching. F. S. 

d. Him being on deck, we gave three cheers to the good 
ship. F. S. 

e. There .being many other passages relative to the sub- 
ject, he refuses to make a premature decision. = 

/. Can the Muse, - 

Her feeble wing all damp with earthly dew, 
Soar |fco that bright empyreal ? = 

Note II. — a..(^0'"E;aithfal Love, by poverty embraced ! 
Thy heart is fire, amid a wintry waste ; 
Thy joys are roses, born on Hecla's brow ; 
Thy home is Eden, warm amid the snow. — Elliott. C.Si 

I 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. XQ. 

h, O full of all subtlety and mischief, thee child of the 
devil. ¥. S. 

Note III. — a. My friends, do they now and then send a 
wish or a thought after me? — Cowper. C. S. 

h. And the souls of thine enemies ; them shall h^ sling as 
out of the middle of a sling. C. S. 

Note IV. — A sail! a sail! How speaks the telescope? 
C. S. 

Note V. — The Koyal Exchange. The Duke of Welling- 
ton. C. S. 

Note VI.— Thus Satan ; and him thus the Anarch old, 

With faltering speech, and visage incomposed, 
Answered. — Milton. C. S. 

Note VII. — a. Who invented the safety-lamp ? Sir Hum- 
phrey Davy. 

h. Who discovered America ? Columbus. 

Here let the pupils bring forward examples which they 
have selected to illustrate the rule and notes. 



P0SSESSIVE OR GENITIVE CASE. 

§ 97. Rule II. — A Noun used to limit 
another noun by denoting Possession or Ori- 
gin is put in the Possessive Case ; as, '^ Wash 
ingioTbS prudence saved his country;" ^'' Solo- 
moil's Temple was for generations the glory of 
Palestine." 

Note I. — The limited Substantive is frequently omitted, 
that is, understood, when no mistake can arise ; as, "Let us 
go to St. Paul's," that is, church. *'Nor think a lover's are 
but fancied woes;" that is, a lover's woes. In these cases 
there is an ellipsis of the governing word. See figures of 
Syntax. 

Note II. — When the thing possessed is the common prop- 
erty of two or more possessors, the sign of the possessive is 
suffixed only to the last noun; as, *'John, Thomas, and 
James'' s house;" that is, a house of which the joint owner- 
ship is vested in these three persons. 

Note III. — But when the thing possessed is the individual 
jnd sejKirate property of two or more possessors, the sign of 



112 SYKTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

the possessive is suffixed to each noun; as, '*He has the 
surgeon's and the physician's opinion;" that is, he has the 
opinion of the surgeon, and the opinion of the physician ; 
and these opinions may differ the one from the other. 

*' For thou art Freedom's now, and Fame's : 
One of the few, the immortal names 
That were not horn to die." — Halleck. 

Note IV. — The possessive case may sometimes be resolved 
into the objective with the preposition of; as, '•'■ Napoleon's 
army-'' may be changed into '^the army of Napoleon,'" This 
is an instance of Grammatical equivalents. Napoleon's 
army = the army of Napoleon. 

Generally, the disuse of the English or inflected genitive 
should not be encouraged. 

Note V. — When the thing possessed is only one of a num-. 
her belonging to the possessor, both the possessive case and 
of are used; as, *' A friend of his brother's,'' implying that 
his brother has more friends than one ; *' the picture of my 
friend's," signifying that it is one of several belonging to 
him. For these we have the Grammatical equivalents 
''one of his brother's friends;" *'that is one of his friend's 
pictures." '* This picture of my friend " suggests a different 
meaning, namely, a likeness of my friend. The form indi- 
cated by this rule has been called the double possessive. 

Note VI. — A Noun depending upon a Participle used as 
a noun is put in the possessive case ; as, '•'■ He was averse to 
the nation's involving itself in war ;" *' the time of William's 
making the experiment at length arrived." 

Note VII. — Sometimes two or three words may be dealt 
with as a single word in the possessive ; as, " The King of 
Saxony's army." ^''Little and Brown's bookseller's shop." 

Note VIII. — The possessive case is often a Grammatical 
equivalent to the Adjective. The King's cause == the Royal 
cause. Ccesar's party =i^e Ccesarean party. Some gram- 
marians call it an adjective. 

Note IX. — Ambiguous expressions like the following 
Bhould be avoided. Thus, the love of God may mean, 06- 
jectively, ''our love to him;" or, subjectively, "his love to 
us." "The reformation of Luther" denotes either the 
change on others, the object, or the change on himself, the 
subject. "The reformation % Luther, or in Luther," re- 
moves the ambiguity. The connection will sometimes ex- 
plain the meaning of such expressions. 

Note X. — The frequent recurrence either of the Analytic 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 113 

possessive or of the Inflective possessive should be avoided. 
See Exercises. 

Note XI. — When the first noun ends in s, the s is often 
annexed to the apostrophe in prose, but frequently omitted in 
poetry; as, ''Jameses book;" ^^ Miss's shoes;" ^'Achilles' 
wrath to Greece the direful spring." 

Note XII. — The s after the apostrophe is omitted when 
the first noun has the sound of s in each of the two last syl- 
lables, and the second noun begins with that of s ; as, For 
righteousness' sake; for conscience' sake. When the second 
noun does not begin with s, the practice is various. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE II. 
THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Rule II. — a. Man's extremity is God's opportunity. C. S. 
&. Thy forest, Windsor, and thy green retreats, 

At once the monarch's and the Muse's seats, 

Invite my lays. — Pope. C. S. 

c. A letter on his father's table, the next morning, an- 
nounced that he had accepted a commission in a regiment 
about to embark for Portugal. — Charles Lamb. C. S. 

d. Gray hairs are death's blossoms. C. S. 

e. A mother tenderness and a father's care are nature's 
gifts for man advantage. F. S. 

f. Whose works are these ? They are Cicero's, the most 
eloquent of men. C. S. 

Note I. — Will you go to the president's this evening? 
C. S. 

Note II. — a. The captain, mate, and seamen's exertions 
brought the ship, under Providence, safely to port. C. S. 

b, Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of 
fishermen. F. S. 

Note III. — a. He has obtained the governor's and the 
secretary's signature to that document. C. S. 

b. This measure gained the king as well as the people's 
approbation. F. S. 

Note IV. — a. England's glory he promoted. = 

b. He labored to promote the welfare of the world. = 

Note V. — a. This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. 
C. S. 

b. This is a picture of Raphael's. C. S. 

Note VI. — a. Such will ever be the eff'ect of youth's as- 
sociating with vicious companions. C. S. 

H 



114 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

h. This coolness was occasioned by the queen intercepting 
certain letters. F. S. 

Note VII. — a. The anniversary of King William and 
Queen Mary's accession to the throne approached. C. S. 

h. The Bishop's of London charge gave great offense. 
F. S. 

Note VIII. — He fought and died in defense of America'a 
liberty. = Give the equivalent. 

Note IX. — a. He was influenced by the love of Christ. 
=and= Give the two equivalents. 

h. He was stimulated to take arms by the injuries of 
England. — and = 

Note X. — a. The extent of the prerogative of the King 
of England is sufficiently ascertained. F. S. 

h. That is my father's brother's daughter's house. F. S. 

Note XI. — a. Burns's poetry is the offspring of genius. 
C. S. 

fe. St. Agnes' eve — ah ! bitter cold it was ! 

The owl, for all his feathers, was a-eold. — Keats. C. S. 

Note XII. — a. I was here introduced to Justus' son, a 
very pleasing young man. C. S. 

b. If ye suffer for righteousness' sake, happy are ye. C. S. 

THE OBJECTIVE OR ACCUSATIVE CASE. 

§ 98. EuLE III. — A nonn denoting tlie Di- 
rect object, or the Effect of an action, is put in 
the Objective Case ; as, ^'God rules the world 
which he created." 

The Direct object is complementary to a 
Transitive verb, and is necessary to complete 
the sense; as, ^'God rules the world;'''' ^'he 
threw a stoned 

Note I. — The Objective of the Effect expresses the result 
of the verb's action, and is often kindred to the verb in its 
origin; as, *'0n their hinges grate harsh thunder;'^ 'Uhe 
crisped brook ran nectar ;'^ '•^ grin horrible a ghastly smile ;'^ 
*Ho live a lije of virtue." 

Verbs like these are called Intransitive. They are also 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 115 

called Subjective, as tlieir meaning is complete without a 
direct object ; as, ''Henry /wes;" ''Johnr^ws." 

Note II. — Verbs signifying to give, offer, promise, tell, 
etc., take both a Direct and a Tradltive object; as, ''I 
gave himt\\Q booJc'^ = ''I gave the book to him;^'' ''I offered, 
sent, promised him the book;" ''I told him the truth.''^ 

Note III. — Verbs signifying ^o 7wa/ce, appoint, name, strike^ 
etc., take both a Direct object and an Objective of the Ef- 
fect ; as, " They made him king ;^^ "she named him John ;" 
'Mie struck her a severe blow.^^ These are Factitive verbs, 
which govern objects produced by action of the verb on the 
direct object ; as, ''They appointed him cAa«V7wa»." 

Note IV. — Verbs signifying to ask, teach, etc., take two 
direct objects differently related ; as, "Ask him his opin- 
ion ;^^ " he taught them logic.'''' The two nouns denote, the 
one a person, and the other a thing. 

Note V. — The Direct object in the active voice should be 
made the subject in the passive; as, "He offered me a lu- 
crative situation=i\, lucrative situation was offered me;" "a 
ship was promised me." Forms like the following, though 
in the language, should not be encouraged : "I was offered a 
lucrative situation;" "I was promised a ship in live days;" 
"I was allowed great liberty." 

Note VI. — A noun depending on a Preposition is in the 
objective case; as, "Lafayette in his youth came to Amei^- 
ica.''^ 

Note VII. — Nouns denoting Duration of time, or Extent 
of space, or Amount of weight or number, often stand with- 
out a governing word in the objective case; as, "Jacob 
said, I will serve thee seven years for Rachel ;" "a kingdom 
five hundred miles square;" "a guinea weighs j^ue penny- 
weights six grains ;" "water ten feet deep ;" "an army for- 
ty thousand strong;" "you have asked me news a hundrea 
tiines.'" — Pope. 

Note VIII. — The adjective worth not only follows the 
noun which it qualifies, but is followed by a noun denoting 
price; as, "The book is woi'th a dollar;" "the land is 
worth the price paid." 

Note IX. — The objective case foUo^rs the ndjectives like^ 
nigh, near, next. See § 101. 



116 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE III. 

THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 

Rule III. — a. They whom office has made proud, and 
whom luxury has corrupted, can not relish the simple pleas- 
ures of nature. C. S. 

6. Love rules his kingdom without a sword. C. S. 

c. Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 
Can honor's voice provoke the sleeping dust, 
Or flatteiy soothe the dull, cold ear of death. — Geay. C. S, 

d. Had the life of Hampden been spared, he could not 
have changed the course of events, for he could not have 
changed the laws of nature, and the principles of human 
nature. — Bancrqft. C. S. 

e. They who^fe had most injured he had the greatest 
reason to love. F. S. 

J'. He invited my brother and I to see and examine his 
library. F. S. 

Note I. — Let us run with patience the race set before 
us. C. S. 

Note II. — The Secretary of State promised him the office 
of consul. C. S. 

Note III. — ^By a long course of study he made himself a 
scholar. C. S. 

Note IV. — I shall ask him the question when I next see 
him. C. S. 

Note V. — She would not accept the jewels, though she 
was offered them. F. S. 

Note VI. — In his distress, he, for the first time, called 
upon God. C. S. 

Note VII. — a. In order to be here punctually, he trav- 
eled forty miles yesterday. C. S. 

b. He has been waiting here impatiently seven days. C. S. 

c. A mass of gold found in California weighs five pounds. 
C. S. 

Note VIII. — The watch which I offer you is worth fifty 
dollars. C. S. 

Note IX. — The star of military glory, rising like a mete- 
or, like a meteor has set. C. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 117 

APPOSITION. 

§ 99. EuLE IV. — A noun placed after an- 
other noun to explain it, is by Apposition 
put in the same case; as, ^'Hope, the star of 
life, never sets;" ^'this sentiment is Lord Ba- 
con's, the great precursor of Locke and New- 
ton;" ^'this was the remark of Dr. Edwards, 
him who was afterward President of Union 
College." 

Note I. — TliG words in apposition explain each other. 
Words which thus explain each other, and are in the same 
case, may be said to be placed side by side, or to be in ap- 
position, according to the meaning of the Latin word appo^ 
sitio. The leading noun, which usually comes first in the 
sentence, is parsed as in the nominative, possessive, or ob- 
jective case, and the following noun as in apposition with 
that. 

When a word is repeated for the sake of emphasis, it may 
be said to be in apposition; as, ''Cisterns, broken cisterns 
that can hold no water." 

Note II. — Nouns are sometimes set in apposition to what- 
ever STANDS IN THE PLACE OF A NOUN, whether a pronoun 
and adjective, or a part of a sentence, or a sentence : fv?, 
'■'You write very carelessly, a habit you must correct." Here 
you write very carelessly =you have the habit of writing care- 
lessly. ''You are too humane and consider-ate, things few 
people can be charged with." — Pope. 

Note III. — The whole and its parts, or a part, are 
often found in the same case by apposition; as, "The 
whole army fled, some one way and some another." " They 
love each other." " They helped one another." Here one 
is in apposition with they, and another is in the objective case. 

Note IV. — Two or more substantives in apposition, form- 
ing one COMPLEX name, or a name and title, have a plu- 
ral termination, and the sign of the possessive annexed to 
the last of the words; as, "The Miss Smiths;^' "the two 
Mr. Thompsons;'' "his brother John's wife;" "John the 
Baptist's head;" '^ Benjamin FranJclin's life. See § 12. 



118 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

Note V. — When the explanatory term in apposition is 
complex or long, the sign of the possessive is attixed to the 
first noun; as, "I called at Putnam's^ the well-known pub- 
lisher and bookseller." 

When a short explanatory term is subjoined to the name, 
it matters little to which the sign is applied. Usage is di- 
vided. Thus we may say, ^'I left the parcel at Putnam the 
Bookseller's," or *'at Putnani's the Bookseller." Analogy 
with those languages in which case-endings abound would 
lead us to saj, '•''Putnam's the Bookseller's." 

Note VI. — Personal pronouns are sometimes used in ap- 
position for the purpose of identifying the person of a noun ; 
as, ^'IFe, the people of the United States, do ordain and es- 
tablish this Constitution for the United States of America." 

Note VII. — A proper name is often placed after a com- 
mon name in apposition ; as, The River Danube, 

A common is often placed after a proper name in apposi- 
tion ; as, The Mississippi River. 

In some cases the preposition intervenes ; as, The city of 
New York. 

Note VIII. — Two nouns may come together, though not 
in apposition, and though neither of them is in the genitive 
case ; as, A sun beam ; a sea nymph. These are, in fact, 
compound terms, and a hyphen should be employed to con- 
nect the parts if the substantive does not perform the office 
of an adjective. Whether the hyphen should be used or not 
must depend on the accent. Thus we must say Glass' -house 
if we speak of a house for the manufacture of glass, but we 
say Glass house if we speak of a house made of glass. For 
the use of the hyphen, see i) 151. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE IV. 
APPOSITION. 

Rule IV.— a. The lines are from Cicero, the orator and 
statesman. C. S. 

h. Virtue sole survives, 

Immortal, never-failing friend to man, 
His guide to happiness on high. C. S. 

c. They literally fulfilled the spirit of their national mot- 
to, E pliiribus unum ; at home many, abroad one. C. S. 

Note I. — a. So short, too, is our life here, a mortal life 
at best, and so endless is the life on which we enter at death, 



SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 119 

an immortal life, that the consideration may well moderate 
our sorrow at parting. — Herman Hooker. C. S. 

h. That very law that moulds a tear, 

And bids it trickle from its source. 
That law preserves the earth a sphere, 
And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers. C. S. 

c. Forever honored be this, the place of our fathers' ref- 
uge. — D. Webster. C. S. ' 

Note II. — a. The Dutch were formerly in possession of 
the coasting trade and freight of almost all other leading 
nations ; they were also the bankers for all Europe ; ad- 
vantages by which they gained immense sums. C. S. 

b. The mild dignity of Carver and of Bradford ; the de- 
cision and soldier-like air and manner of Standish ; the de- 
vout Brewster, the enterprising AUerton, the general firm- 
ness and thoughtfulness of the whole band ; their conscious 
joy for dangers escaped ; their high religious faith, full of 
confidence and anticipation — all of these seem Xo belong to 
this place, and to be present on this occasion, to fill us with 
reverence and admiration. — D. Webster. C. S. 

c. To be resigned when ills betide, 
Patient when favors are denied, 

And pleased with favors given ; 
Dear Cliloe, this is wisdom's part, 
This is that incense of the heart, 
,^^^ Whose fragrance smells to heaven. — Dr. Cotton. C. S. 

Note III.— ffl. The court condejnned the criminals, a part 
of them to suffer death, and ff^Srt to transportation. C. S. 

b. Two thousand auditors listened, all with admiration, 
many with enthusiasm, to the eloquent exposition of doc- 
trines intelligible only to the few. — Sir William Hamil- 
ton. C. S. 

Note IV. — ^William the Conqueror's victory at the battle 
of Hastings decided the fate of England. C. S. 

Note V. — Information was lodged at the mayor's office, 
the well-known and energetic magistrate. C. S. 

Note VI. — I, Victoria, Queen of England, make my proc- 
lamation. C. S. 

Note VII. — a. The mountain, Vesuvius, poured forth a 
torrent of lava from its deep bosom. C. S. 

b. The Connecticut River rose higher in the spring of 
1854 than it has since the memoiy of man. C. S. 

c. The city of London was known to the ancients by the 
name of Lugdunum. C. S. 

Note VIII. — Besides his practical wisdom, he was well 
rersed in school learning. C. S. 



120 SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON NOUNS. 

§ 100. In these exercises the pupil is expected, 

a. To mention the several nouns in the example. 

b. To state whether the example affords an instance of 
correct syntax or of false. 

c. To repeat the rule or note which sanctions or condemns 
the use of each noun. 

1. Bad men they often honor virtue at the bottom of 
their hearts. 

Model. Men, virtue, bottom, hearts, are common nouns. 

This example affords an instance of false syntax in the 
use of the noun men without a verb, which is condemned by 
note third under rule first, ' * Superfluous nominatives should 
be avoided in common language.'* 

Virtue is a common noun in the objective case, according 
to rule third, ' ' A noun depending on the transitive verb is 
in the objective case." 

Bottom is a common noun in the objective case after at, 
according to note fourth under rule third, "A noun depend- 
ing on a preposition is in the objective case." 

. Hearts is parsed like bottom, and depends on the preposi- 
tion of, as above. 

2. O Caledonia ! stern and wild ; 
Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 

Land of brown heath and shaggy wood ; 

Land of the mountain and the flood ; 

Land of my sires ! What mortal hand 

Can e'er untie the filial band 

That knits me to thy rugged strand! — ^W. Scott. 
8. How shall I speak of the old man, the bequeathe! 
of the fatal legacy to St. Leon, and his few fatal words, 
*' Friendless, friendless! alone, alone!" 

4. Light illumines every thing, the lowly valley as well as 
the lofty mountain ; it fructifies eveiy thing, the humblest 
herb as well as the lordliest tree. — Hare. 

Here valley is in apposition with thing. 

5. Thales' answer to the proposed question was not 
thought so good as Solon's. 

6. Whose works are these ? They are Cicero's, the most 
eloquent of men's. 

7. The time of William making the experiment at length 
arrived. 

8. The prerogative's extent of England's king is sufficient- 
ly ascertained. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 121 



CHAPTER III. 

SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 101. EuLE y. — Adjectives qualify or lim- 
it Substantives and words used as Substantives; 
as, *^A wise man;" *'he is good f ^Hhe most 
eloquent of men." 

When the noun to which the adjective belongs is not ex- 
pressed, it is said to be understood^ as in the last example 
just given. 

Note I. — Adjectives are used in two ways.: first, Attrib- 
utively; as, ** A ^006/ man died;" second, Predicative- 
LY; as, ''He is good.''' In the first instance, the quality of 
goodness is Assumed as belonging to the subject of the verb; 
in the second place, it is Asserted. In the first instance, 
the adjective good qualifies the Grammatical subject of the 
proposition ; in the second, it constitutes the Predicate ol 
the proposition. 

Note II. — Adjectives belong to verbs in the Infinitive 
mode, which are equivalent to nouns; as, ''To see is pleas- 
ant ;" "to ride is more agreeable than to walk.'* 

^''Tohe blind is unfortunate ; " " to be wise is desirable ;" 
The combinations to be blind, to be wise, to set light by, to 
make bold ivith, are equivalent to certain verbs : to set light 
hy=to despise. To make bold with is an idiom that should 
not be encouraged. 

Note III. — Adjectives often belong to those forms of the 
participles which are used as nouns; as, " Walking is agree- 
able ;" " loud talking is offensive.'''' 

Note IV. — Adjectives belong to Sentences or whole Prop- 
ositions : " Greece, which had submitted to the arms, in her 
turn subdued the understandings of the Romans, and, con- 
trary to that which in these cases commonly happens, the 
conquerors adopted the opinions and manners of the conquered.^' 
— Enfield's Hist. Phil, b. iii., 1. 

Note V. — Adjectives arc somstimes used to modify the 



122 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

meaning of other adjectives; as, '^The iron was red hot ;^'* 
"the ship was quick sailing '' These should be regarded as 
virtually compound adjectives, whether joined by a hyphen 
or not. Participles are used in the same way; as, "In 
came Squire South, stark, staring mad." — Arbuthnot. So 
we meet with " Roaring drunk ;" " /orzw^ jealous ;•' " bloody 
with spurring, j^er?/ red with speed." 

Note VI. — An adjective and a noun may be taken as a 
compound word, which, as such, may admit of an additional 
adjective ; as, " An elegant young man.''^ 

Note VII. — "Many English verbs take an adjective with 
them to form the predicate, where an adverb would be used 
in other languages;" as, "He fell z7/;" "he looks palef 
"he feels coldf' "he grew warm;'''' "her smiles amid the 
blushes lovelier show;" "glows not her blush iha fairer V 

Note VIII. — The adjectives like^ nigh^ riear, next, are fol- 
lowed by the objective case. Some grammarians prefer 
considering the preposition to understood as the governing 
word. 

Note IX.— Adjectives are often used as Substantives, es- 
pecially when preceded by the definite article or the demon- 
strative pronouns, and sometimes take the sign of the plural ; 
as, " The 2^ise ;" " the c/ee/) ;" "thes?«6/me;" " these et^Ys 
of war ; " *^ those goods of fortune ; " " these sweets of life. " 

Note X.— A substantive, or a phrase standing immediate- 
ly before a substantive, is often equivalent to an adjective ; 
as, "A ham door;" "the marriage act;" "an off-hand 
manner." See § 18. 

Note XI. — When an adjective is used to express compari- 
son between two objects, it is put in the Comparative de- 
gree; as, "He is the taller of the two;" "she is more dis- 
creet than her sister. " Even good writers, however, some- 
times depart from this usage, and employ the Superlative in 
the comparison between two objects. This practice should 
not be encouraged. 

Note XII. — When an adjective is used to express pre- 
eminence among objects of the same class, it is put in the 
Superlative; as, "He was the bravest of the brave;" "she 
was the loveliest of women." 

In the use of the Comparative degree, if the terms of 
comparison belong to one and the same class, other is pre- 
fixed to the second term ; as, " Socrates was wiser than the 
other Athenians." In the use of the Superlative degree, as 
the object expressed by the first term is contained in the 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 123 

class expressed by the second term, the word othei^ can not 
be admitted; as, *' Socrates was the wisest of the Athe- 
nians," not the wisest of the other Athenians. "The love- 
liest of her daughters, Eve, " is phraseology condemned, on 
the ground that it implies that Eve is one of her own 
daughters. 

Note XIII. — Double Comparatives and Superlatives 
should be avoided; as, '■^ More wise?- f '•'■more braver ;^^ 
" most strongest.'''' Worser is obsolete, but lesser is still in 
use, as well as less. Extremesty chief est ; truest^ rightest ; 
viore perfect, most perfect ; less universal, so universal; most 
unklndest ; "but that I love thee best, O most best, believe 
it." — Hamlet. This phraseology is not to be encouraged, 
though we may have to submit to it. See § 27. 

Note XIV. — Adjectives and Adverbs are sometimes im- 
properly used for each other; as, '■'Extreme bad weather," 
for extremely ; " the then ministry," for the then existing min- 
istry ; "weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot," for proniis- 
cuously ; '^indifferent honest,^^ for indifferently honest. 

Note XV. — ^An adjective is sometimes used Infinitively, 
or Independently of a noun, when joined to a verb infinitive 
or to a participle ; as, " To be cheerful is the habit of a truly 
pious mind;" "the desire of being happy reigns in all 
hearts." See note second. 

EXERCISES IN THE SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 102. EuLE V. — a. To Christian nations belong the ex- 
clusive cultivation of learning and science, and the assidu- . 
ous advancement of every useful and ornamental art. C. S. 

b. He is the best accountant who can cast up correctly the 
sum of his own errors. — Nevins. C. S. 

c. Allegories, when well chosen, are like so many tracts 
of light in a discourse, that make every thing about them 
clear and beautiful. — Addison. C. S. 

d. A firm faith is the best divinity ; a good life, the best 
philosophy; a clear consci3nce, the best law; honesty, the 
best policy; and temperance, the best physic. C. S. 

(Mention the instances under this note in which the ad- 
jective is used attributively and in which it is used predica- 
tively.) 

Note I. — a. Beautiful June has come : June is beautiful. 
C. S. 

b. When bad men combine, the good must associate, else 



124 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

they will fall one by one in a contemptible struggle.— 
Burke. C. S. 

c. In matters of conscience, first thoughts are best ; in 
matters of prudence, the best thoughts are last. C. S. 

Note II. — a. To calumniate is detestable; to be generous 
is commendable. C. S. 

b. To do so, my lord duke, replied Morton, undauntedly, 
were to acknowledge ourselves the rebels you term us. — 
Scott. C. S. 

Note III. — Hard fighting continued four hours. C. S. 

Note IV. — a. No such original convention of the people 
was ever held antecedent to the existence of civil govern- 
ment. C. S. 

b. Either, said I, you did not know the way well, or you 
did ; if the former, it was dishonest in you to undertake to 
guide me ; if the latter, you have willfully led me out of the 
way. — W. CoBBETT. C. S. 

Note V. — a. I never met with a closer grained wood. 
C. S. 

b. Some deemed him wondrous wise, and some believed 
him mad. — Beattie. C. S. 

Note VI. — He described a beautiful young lady leading 
a blind old man. C. S. 

Note VII. — a. Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian 
spring. C. S. 

h. But redder yet that light shall grow- 

On Linden's hills of blood-stain' d snow, 
And bloodier yet the torrent flow 

Of Iser, rolling rapidly. — Campbell. C. S. 

Note VIII. — a. If she is not one of the immortals, she is 
like them. C. S. 

b. Each sudden breath of wind passed by us like the voice 
of a spirit. — Professor Wilson. C. S. 

Note IX. — a. He enjoys the goods of fortune with a 
grateful heart. C. S. 

b. The generous who is always just, and the just who is 
always generous, may, unannounced, approach the throuQ 
of heaven. C. S. 

Note X. — Having leaped the stone wall, he drank spring 
water which issued from the base of the mountain. C. S. 

Note XI. — a. He is the strongest of the two, but not the 
wisest, r. S. 

b. Moses was the meekest of men. C. S. 

Note XII. — a. He spoke with so much propriety that 1 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 125 

understood him the best of all others that spoke on the sub- 
ject. F. S. 

b. He was graver than the other Frenchmen. C. S. 

c. In the language of the Edinburgh Review, Jonathan 
Edwards is one of the acutest, most powerful, and, of all 
reasoners, the most conscientious and sincere. C. S. 

Note XIII. — a. His work was perfect, his brother's more 
perfect, and his father's the most peifect of all. F. S. 

b. It is more easier to build two chimneys than to main- 
tain one. F. S. 

c. They chose, as they thought, of the two the lesser evil. 
— John Randolph. 

Note XIV. — a. You had scarce gone when he arrived. 
F. S. 

b. The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but 
suitably to his offense. F. S. 

Note XY. — a. To be trifling in youth is a bad omen. C. S. 

b. To be innocent is to be not guilty, but to be virtuous is 
to overcome our evil inclinations. — Penn. C. S. 

SYNTAX OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES OR AD- 
JECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 103. EuLE VI. — Pronominal Adjec- 
tives, like adjectives, belong to substantives 
and to words used as substantives. See exam- 
ples in the notes below. 

Note I. — The Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns this 
and that agree Vi^ith nouns in the singular number, these 
and those with nouns in the plural number ; as, This city, 
that church ; these cities, those churches. 

Note II. — This, that, and other adjectives denoting uni- 
ty, are joined to nouns in the plural form denoting an ag- 
gregate or a unity of idea; as, *' This ten years ;^^ '-'• every 
three years y 

Note III. — This and that, these and those, are joined 
either in the singular or the plural number to the word 
means, which has the same form in both numbers ; as, 
*' This means ;" " these means.'''' 

Note IV. — The Personal pronoun them is sometimes im^ 
properly used for these and those; as, "Give me them 



126 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

books" for ^'give mc those books;" *'read them lines" for 
''read these lines." 

Note V. — This and that, placed before a general term, 
not only individualize it like the article, but may also ex- 
press opposition between different individuals; as, ''''That 
boy;" '''this girl." 

Note VI. — The Distributive Adjective Pronouns each, 
EVERY, either, require the nouns to which they belong to 
be in the singular number. 

, Each is employed to denote two or more taken separate- 
ly; as, '''•Each member is entitled to his share." 

Every is applied to more than two objects taken individ^ 
ually, and comprehends them all; as, ''''Every tree is known 
by its fruit." It is sometimes joined to a plural noun, when 
the things are conceived of as forming one aggregate ; as, 
""Every twelve years. ''' 

Either and neither signify only one of two; as, ''Take 
either of the two apples," that is, one or the other ^ but not 
both. Either is sometimes used impro])erly for each or 
hotlt. ; as, " On either side of the river." Either has some- 
times the meaning of one or another of any number; as, 
" You may take either of these ten books." This use of the 
word either is not to be encouraged. 

Instead of either, the phrase any one or the word any 
should be employed. So, instead of neither, in like man- 
ner, none or no one should be employed. Thus, instead of 
saying, ''either of the fifty men," we should say '-''any one 
of the fifty men," or ''one of the fifty men." 

Note VII. — Many, few, several, denote mmiher^ and 
belong to plural substantives; as, "Many men;'' "few of- 
fices;'" " several prisoners.'''* 

Many is used as a singular substantive, with the article a 
between it and the substantive ; as, " You, I know, have 
many a time sacrificed your own feelings to those of others.'* 
"A great many''"' is a phrase in current use. 

Few may take the article a before it, though the article 
can not be used with a plural w^ord ; as, " Can you lend me 
a few shillings V 

Much and little denote quantity., and are used in the 
singular; as, " Much money i' " Utile money .'' 

More and most denote number and quantity^ and are used 
both in the singular and the plural number; as, "More 
fruity'''' " most fruit ;'' " more men ^'" " most men.'''' 

Note VIII. — All, none, no, some, any, denote number 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 127 

or quantity^ and "belong to singular or plural nouns ; as, '•'■All 
men;" ''all the earthy No and none differ as viy and 
mine^ etc.; as, "I have no paper;" "as to paper, I have 
none.^^ None, like 7?iine, was formerly used befoi'e a vowel. 
*'This is none other but the house of God." — Gen., xxviii., 
17. Though compounded of no one, none is used as either 
singular or plural. ''Some men'^ (number) '''some ivater^'' 
(quantity). Some is used with numerals to signify about. 
''' Any food''' (quantity); ''''any apples'' (number). Any is 
sometimes equivalent to every ; as, ''Any body can do 
that. " It is sometimes indefinite, being equivalent to some ; 
as, "Shall we tell any body our misfortunes?" the particu- 
lar person being left undecided. 

Enough is an adjective singular, and denotes quantity; 
as, "Bread enough.''' Enow, the old plural of enough, de- 
notes number; as, "Books ewoz^." 

Note IX. — There is an ambiguity in the adjective no 
against which it is necessary to guard. Thus, if we say, 
"No laws are better than the English," it may mean either 
that the absence of all law is better than the English laws, 
or that no code of jurisprudence is superior to the English. 
If the latter be the meaning intended, the ambiguity is re- 
moved by saying, "There are no laws better than the En- 
glish." If the former, we might say, "The absence of all 
law is preferable to the English system." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE YI. 
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

Rule VI. — See examples in the notes below. 

Note I. — a. These sort of actions injure society. F. S. 

b. Those kind of injuries bring with them an appropriate 
punishment. F. S. 

Note II. — I have not been in Washington this five years. 
C. S. 

Note III. — a. By this means they are happy in each 
other. C. S. 

b. By that means he preserved his superiority. C. S. 

c. In the use of these means he preserved his superiority. 
C. S. 

Note IV.— "Will you drive them cattle out of the lot? F. S. 
Note V. — This student is industrious, that soldier is 
brave. C. S. 



V 



128 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Note Yl.—a. Each had his place appointed, each his 
course. C. S. 

b. Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to 
which they are entitled. E. S. 

c. Every nation has reason to feel interested in the pre- 
tensions of its own native language ; in the original quality 
of that language, or characteristic kind of its power ; and in 
the particular degree of its expansion at the period in ques- 
tion. — De Quince y. C. S. 

d. Every person, whatever be their station, is bound to 
obey the laws of morality. F. S. 

e. Are either of those five men worthy of public confi- 
dence? F. S. 

f. Is either of those two men worthy cf public confi- 
dence? C. S. 

g. Neither of those men are aware that their opinions are 
false. F. S. 

h. It is neither grace, nor is it dignity, that speaks to us 
from the noble countenance of Juno Ludovici ; it is neither, 
because it is at the same time both. — Schiller, Transla- 
tion. C. S. 

Note VII. — Many daughters have done virtuously, but 
thou excellest them all. C. S. 

Note Vm. — All nature is but art unknown to thee; 

All chance direction which thou canst not see ; 

All discord harmony not understood ; 

All partial evil universal good. — Pope. C. S. 

Note IX. — No religion is better than the Mohammedan. 
(State each of the two meanings which this ambiguous sen- 
tence may express.) 



SYNTAX OF NUMEKAL ADJECTIVES. 

§ 104. EuLE VII. — The Cardinal one, the 
Ordinal first, and the word single, are nat- 
urally Singular, and are used with nouns in 
the singular number. 

The Cardinals two, three, etc., which an- 
swer to the question Jioiv many, are used with 
nouns in the plural number. 



I 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 129 

The Oedinals second, third, etc., which 
denote what place the thing occupies ; 

The MULTIPLICATIVES DOUBLE, TWO-FOLD, 
TRIPLE, THREE-FOLD, FOUR-FOLD, which shoW 

how many times one thing exceeds another, are 
used with nouns in the singular number. 

Note I. — After Numerals, the words pair, couple, doz- 
en, SCORE, HUNDRED, THOUSAND, etc, do not take the plu- 
ral form ; as, ''^ Six pair of shoes ;" *' three dozen of apples ;" 
''''four couple of dancers." We say twenty sail of vessels ; a 
hundred head of cattle. 

Note II. — Both Cardinals and Ordinals can be used as 
nouns, and some of them take the plural termination ; as, 
Ones^ twos, threes, tens, hundreds, thousands, millions, seconds, 
thirds, fourths. See § 31. 

Note III. — A cardinal precedes a superlative. It has 
been a question whether the first three, or the three first, is 
the correct order. The objection to the use of first three is 
that it implies an untruth, when there is no second three. 
The objection to the use of three first is that it is an ab- 
surdity, since there can be but one first. Both forms are 
in current use. ' ' The fathers of the five first centuries. " — 
MiDDLETON. *^I have not numbered the lines, except of 
the four first books."-— Cowper. So we say " the two 
former" and ''the two latter," or ''the three former" and 
" the three latter." " ' The three former' are relics of the 
idiom of the ancient Britons ; ' the three latter' of that spo- 
ken by the inhabitants of Ireland." — Pric hard's Eastern 
Origin of the Celtic Nations, p. 25. In such expressions 
neither adjective unites with the noun in one complex idea ; 
each qualifies the noun alone, and which comes first can, as 
a matter of logic, make no difference; as a matter of use 
and analogy, first, like other superlatives, follows a cardi- 
nal ; as, " Two handsomest ;" ''Hwo first.'''' 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE VII. 
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Rule VII. — a. One man esteemeth one day above an- 
other. C. S. 

I 



130 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

h, Washington is first in war, first in peace, and first in 
the hearts of his countrymen. C. S. 

c. No single man is born with the right of controlling all 
the rest. C. S. 

d. Two similar horses used together are called a span. 
C. S. 

e. Let a double portion of his spirit rest upon me. C. S. 

f. Man has a two-fold nature. C. S. 

Note I. — There were six pair of doves, two couple of par- 
tridges, and three brace of ducks. C. S. 

Note II. — a. They came and departed by twos. C. S. 

h. Shout ye ! and ye make answer ! Saul hath slain 

His thousands ; David his ten thousands slain. C S. 

Note III. — The clergyman commenced the services by 
reading the four first stanzas of the 90th Psalm, omitting 
the fifth and last. C. S. 

State the arguments for the use of each form. 

SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE ^^AN" OR ^^A." 

§ 105. EuLE YIII.— The article an or A, 
called the Indefinite Article, is used before 
nouns in the singular number, to show that 
some single object is meant, without specifying 
or defining it; as. An army ; a hook. 

Note I.-^The Indefinite Article has sometimes the mean- 
ing oi every or each; as, *'They cost five dollars a dozen ;^* 
*'it cost ten cents an 2WcA" = " every dozen," ''each inch." 
The following adjective pronouns exclude the articles : This, 
that, each, every, either, any, much, some, no, none, neither. 

Note II. — The Indefinite Article is placed before plural 
nouns preceded by few or many, and also before any collect- 
ive word; as, "A few days;" "a great many persons;" 
* ' a hundred men ; " ' ' « thousand years. " A never precedes 
many without the intervention of great between them, but 
follows many, standing between this word and a noun ; as, 
*'Many a man." Some other pronominal adjectives, in 
like manner, precede the articles ; as. All, both, many, such. 

Note III. — The omission or the insertion of the indefinite 
article in some instances nearly reverses the meaning. Its 
omission before such words as few, little, shows that the 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 131 

number or quantity indicated by the adjectives is taken in 
its proper sense: "Ah! little think the gay, licentious, 
proud." Here little is equivalent to "not much," or, by a 
trope, to '"'■not at alV "He reads w^ith a little attention." 
Here, on the contrary, when the indefinite article is insert- 
ed, "a little" means "not none," or "50??<e." If we say 
"yew accompanied the prince," we seem to disparage the 
number, and to represent it as inconsiderable, as if we said, 
"not many." If we say '''' a few accompanied the prince," 
we seem to amplify the number, as if it were not unworthy 
of attention. If the article is inserted, the clause is equiv- 
alent to a double negative, and thus serves to amplify; if 
the article is suppressed, the expression has either a dimin- 
utive or a negative import. 

Note IV. — In expressing comparison, when the indefinite 
article is suppressed before the second term, the subject, as 
possessing different qualities in various degrees, is compared 
with itself; when the article is expressed, the subject is 
compared with something else. Thus, " He is a better sol- 
dier than scholar," is equivalent to "he possesses the qual- 
ities of a soldier in a higher degree than those of a scholar," 
or "he is more warlike than learned;" on the contrary, 
"He would make a better soldier than a scholar," denotes 
that "he would make a better soldier than a scholar would 
make." 

Note V. — The Indefinite article, like the definite, is em- 
ployed to distinguish between things which are individually 
different, but have one generic name, and things which in 
reality are one and the same, but are characterized by dif- 
ferent qualities. "A black and a white horse," or "a black 
horse and a white," conveys the idea of two horses, the one 
black and the other white. "A black and white horse," on 
the contrary, denotes one horse, partly black and partly 
white. In general, the ellipsis of articles implies identity, 
whether with respect to person, subject, or predicate ; the 
insertion or repetition of them, diversity. 

Note VI. — The word to which a or an refers must always 
be expressed ; that to which one refers may be understood. 
Pointing to books, we can not say, "Give me a or an ;" but 
we may say, "Give me owe." Moreover, if you say, "Give 
me one book," you are understood to say, "Give a single 
book, and not two or more;" but if you say, "Give me a 
book," you are supposed to say, "Give me a hook, and not 
something else." 



132 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Note VII. — When the meaning of a term is general, it 
should not be limited by the article ; as, " Man is born to 
trouble," that is, ''all men." "God Almighty has given 
reason to a man, to be a light to him." The article here 
should be suppressed. "Who breaks a butterfly upon a* 
wheel ?" It is not any wheel that Pope meant, but a known 
instrument of torture, or ^'•the wheel." 

Note VIII. — The Indefinite article is applied to proper 
names; as, 

"From liberty each nobler science sprung; 
A Bacon brightened, and a Spenser sung." 

Note IX. — The form of the indefinite article depends on 
the sound by which it is followed. When it is followed by 
a vowel sound, it has the form of an; as, An artist; an 
eagle; an hour. When it is followed by a consonantal 
sound, it has the form of a ; as, ^ lion ; a union ; a oneness. 
The form before the letter h is not uniform, as the practice 
of sounding or suppressing the aspirate is not uniform. See 
§ 32. 

For the use of the articles with the present participle, see 
§ 128. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE VIII. 
THE ARTICLE "AN" OR ^^A." 

Rule VIII. — In my journey I traveled through a beau- 
tiful valley. C. s: 

Note I. — They visit the north once a year for health and 
relaxation. C. S. 

Note II. — a. He will come in a few hours to make ar- 
rangements for his voyage. C. S. 
h. And many a banner shall be torn, 

And many a knight to earth be borne, 
And many a sheaf of arrows spent, 
Ere Scotland's king shall pass the Trent. C. S. 
c. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 

The dark, unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; 
Full many a flower is bom to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. C. S. 

Note III. — He has few friends ; he has a few friends. 
He has little money; he has a little money. C S. 

Note IV. — a. He is a better artist than seaman. C. S. 

h. He would make a better artist than a seaman. C. S. 

Note V. — A black and white horse ; a black and a white 
horse. Give equivalents for the two last expressions. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 133 

Note VI. — Here are apples •* give me one. C. S. 

Note VII. — a. A man is the noblest work of creation. F. S. 

h. He was doomed to ascend a scaffold. F. S. 

Note VIII. — It needed a Newton to demonstrate the laws 
of j^cravitation. C. S. 

Note IX. — There was a unanimity which was very grati- 
fying. F. S. 

SYNTAX OF THE ARTICLE '^THE." 

§ 106. EuLE IX. — The article the, called 
the Definite Article, is used before nouns, both 
in the singular and plural number, to specify 
and define their meaning ; as, ^^1^/ie President;" 
^Hlie Senate;" ^Hlie Eepresentatives." 

Note I. — The omission of the definite article, when the 
sense is restrictedj" creates ambiguity ; as, ''AH words which 
are signs of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake.'* 
This may mean either that all words are signs of complex 
ideas, and furnish matter of mistake, or that such a part of 
them as are the signs of complex ideas furnish matter of 
mistake. The ambiguity is removed by the use of the arti- 
cle; as, *'A11 the words which are signs of complex ideas 
furnish matter of mistake." 

Note II. — The definite article is likewise used to distin- 
guish between things which are individually different, but 
have one generic name, and things which are, in truth, one 
and the same, but are characterized by several qualities : 
*' The red and white roses were most admired." It may be 
doubtful whether two kinds of roses are here indicated, or 
roses with two colors. By repeating the article the ambi- 
guity is removed : '* The red and the white roses." In this 
phraseology two kinds of roses are indicated. 

Note III. — ^When an additional epithet or description of 
the same subject is intended, the definite article should not 
be employed. For this reason the following sentence is 
faulty: ''The Apostle James, the son of Zebedee and the 
brother of St. John, would be declared the apostle of the 
Britons." It should be " and brother of St. John." When 
a diversity of persons or a change of subject is intended to 
be expressed, the definite article is necessarily employed; 



184: SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

as, *'Cincinnatus the dictator, and tlte master of the horse, 
marched against the ^qiii." Were the article omitted, 
the expression would imply that the dictator and the master 
of the horse were one and the same individual. 

Note IV. — In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the 
article, whether definite or indefinite, to the former of two 
words in the same construction; as, *' There were many 
hours both of the night and day which he could spend with- 
out suspicion in solitary thought." It might have been of 
the night and of the day. And, for the sake of emphasis, 
we often repeat the article in a series of epithets; as, ^'He 
hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an in- 
dependent authority." The article is repeated before titles ; 
as, *' The honorable the lord mayor." 

Note V. — The definite article is often placed before an 
adjective when the noun is understood; as, "Cowards die 
many times, the valiant never taste of death but once." 

Note VI. — The definite article gives energy and precision 
w^hen applied to comparatives and superlatives; as, '■'■The 
more frequently I see him, the more I respect him;" "at the 
worsts I could incur hut a gentle reprimand ;" " for neither 
if we eat are we the better ; neither if we eat not arc we the 
worse:' See § 34. 

Note VII. — As proper names are already determinate, 
they do not admit the article, except, 1. When a particular 
family is distinguished; as, "He was a Stuart," or "of the 
family of the Stuarts." 2. When eminence is implied ; as, 
" ^ Brutus ;" meaning a patriotic person. 3. When a com- 
mon name is understood; as, " The (river) Hudson." 

Note VIII. — The use of the definite article before the 
relative which has become obsolete: "Where there was a 
garden, into the which he entered. — John, xviii., 1. 

Note IX. — Formerly, to express death in general, authors 
would say the death: " I will not do it to the death." — Shak- 
SPEARE. So expressions like ''''the Douglas," '■''the Lady 
Anne," were in use. 

Note X. — The definite article is sometimes used instead 
of a possessive pronoun; as, "He looked him fall in the 
yace," that is, '■'' his face:'' 

Note XI. — The definite article or some other definiiive is 
generally prefixed to the antecedent to the pronouns who or 
which in restrictive clauses ; as, " He is tlte man who rescued 
the child from the flames." 

Note XII. — Articles often precede quotations from for- 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 135 

«ign languages; as, *'The yvCJOi asavrov;^^ *'a ne plus 
ultra.'" 

Note XIII. — As shoAving the value of the article in giv- 
ing definiteness to the English language, the following 
phrase may be cited from the Latin language, v^hich has 
no article. Filius regis is susceptible of four different mean- 
ings : A son of a king; a son of the king; the son of a 
king ; the son of the king. 

Note XIV. — The article and the demonstrative adjective 
pronoun both individualize a general term to which it is 
prefixed. But, in addition to this, the demonstrative marks 
some special opposition between individuals. When we say, 
*'The man is good," there is no special opposition between 
different individuals implied by the word the, though there 
may be by each of the other words; but when we say, "'That 
man is good," we imply no opposition to the other words in 
the sentence, but only to the word that. 

Note XV. — The definite article is used to express an ob- 
ject of eminence, or the only one of the kind, as, "The 
queen prorogued Parliament in person ;" *' extensive knowl- 
edge is necessary for the orator." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE IX. 

THE ARTICLE ''THE." 
Rule IX..^ — a. 

The boast of heraldiy, the pomp of power, 
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 

Await alike the inevitable hour ; 
The paths of glory lead but to the grave. C. S. 

h. Beware of drunkenness : it impairs an understanding ; 
wastes an estate ; destroys a reputation ; consumes the body ; 
and renders the man of the highest parts the common jest 
of the meanest clown. F. S. 

c. All the men who were present voted against the prop- 
osition. C. S. 

Note I. — In all cases of proscription, the universal prac- 
tice is to direct juries, by analogy to the statute of limita- 
tions, to decide against incorporeal rights which for many 
years have been relinquished. F. S. 

Note II. — a. The red and white bonnets were much ad- 
mired. Give the ambiguous equivalents. 

h. Like a householder who bringeth out of his treasure 
things new and old. F. S. 

Note III. — Thomas, the brother of the general, and the 



136 SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

colonel of a regiment, led the attack. Give the arabigubus 
equivalents. 

Note IV. — a. He is a just, wise, generous, and influen- 
tial man. C. S. 

b. The life of the former was almost a perpetual journey ; 
and, as he possessed the various talents of the scholar and 
the statesman, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of 
his duty. — Gibbon. C. S. 

Note V. — ^Wise men are governed by their reason, the 
foolish by their passions. C. S. 

Note VI. — a. At the best, his gift was but a poor offering, 
considering his estate. C. S. 

h. At most, he would have had to travel only three miles 
farther. C. S. 

c. But happy tliey, the happiest of their kind, 
Whom gentle stars unite. C. S. 

Note VII. — He was a Washington. ' He was a Cato. 
The Connecticut. C. S. , 

Note VIII. — Those things in the which I will appear 
unto thee. F. S. 

Note IX. — Bear Worcester to the death. F. S. 

Note X.— He received the blow in the breast. 

Note XI. — He is the orator who will address the people 
this evening. 

Note XII. — The tout ensemble. The ultima ratio reyum. 
C o. 

Note 'KTil.—Amicfas imperatoHs. Give the several mean- 
ings. 

Note XIV. — The man is bad ; that man is bad. 

Note XV. — The President will deliver his message to- 
morrow. 

PKOMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE ADJECTIVE. 

§ 107. In these exercises the pupil is expected, 

a. To mention the several adjectives in the example. 

b. To state whether the example affords an instance of 
correct syntax or of false. 

c. To repeat the rule or note which sanctions or condemm 
the use of each adjective. See models, § 100 and 136. 

1. We may reason very clearly, and exceedingly strong, 
without knowing that there is such a thing as a syllogism. 

2. By discussing what relates to each particular in their 
order, we shall better understand the subject. 



SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. 137 

3. Let us, however, hope the best, rather than fear the 
worst, and believe that there was never a right thing done 
nor a wise one spoken in vain, although the fruit of them 
may not spring up in the place designated nor at the time 
expected.— W. S. Landor. 

4. My father had been a leading mountaineer, and would 
still maintain the general superiority in skill and hardihood 
of the above boys (his own faction) over the below boys (so 
they were called), of which party his contemporary had 
been chieftain. — Charles Lamb. 

5. I do not know what I may seem to the Avorld, but to 
myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the 
sea-shore, and diverting myself with now and then finding 
a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, while 
the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. — 
Sir Isaac Newton. 

6. Higher, higher still we climb 

Up the mount of glory, 
That our names may live through time 
In our country's story.— Montgomery. 

7. Pardon me, gentlemen, confidence is a plant of slow 
growth in an aged bosom. — Lord Chatham. 

8. The new set of curtains did not correspond with the 
old pair of blinds. 

9. The shortest and the best prayer that we can address 
to him who knows our wants is this : l^hy will he done. — 

BOLINGBROKE. 

10. Be you assured that the works of the English chisel fall 
not more short of the wonders of the Acropolis, than the 
best productions of modern pens fall short of the nervous 
and overwhelming compositions of those that resistless f ul- 
mined over Greece. — Lord Brougham. 

11. Mark, I do beseech you, the severe simplicity, the 
subdued tone of the diction in the most touching parts of 
the old man eloquent's loftiest passages. — Lord Brougham. 

PEOMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF THE PROPER AND 
IMPROPER USE OF THE ARTICLES. 

§ 108. a. ''And the Pharisees and Scribes murmured." 
The should be inserted before ''Scribes," to signify that 
they were a class distinct from the Pharisees. 

h. "Howbeit, when he, the Spirit of Truth, shall come, 
he will guide you into all truth." The passage should have 



138 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

run, all the truth, that is, the truth concerning the Christian 
religion. 

c. *' There are a few words in the English language which 
are employed in a more loose and circumscribed sense than 
those of the fancy and the imagination." — Spectator, The 
words those of the are worse than superfluous. 

d. " If I but stretch this hand, 

I heave the gods, the ocean, and the land." — Pope. 

The objects here are distinct, and are properly marked as 
such by the repetition of the definite article. 

e. '''•A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a cowardly dis- 
position, prompted him, at the age of nineteen, to assume 
the mask of hypocrisy, which he never laid aside." The 
repetition of the article distinctly marks the three properties 
in Augustus which Gibbon wished his readers to notice. 

f. ^' But the great triumphs of modern ingenuity and art 
are those astronomical clocks and watches, in which the 
counted vibrations of a pendulum or balance-wheel have de- 
tected periodical inequalities even in the motion of the earth 
itself." — Arnott's Physics. A pendulum is not a balance^ 
wheel. The distinction should have been marked by the in- 
sertion of the article a before the word balance-wheel. 



CHAPTER lY. 

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS, 
x/ PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

§ 109. Rule X. — Personal Pronouns 
agree with tteir Antecedents in Gender, Num- 
ber, and Person; as, ^'Dryden tlien betook 
liimself to a weapon at whicli he was not like- 
ly to find bis match;" *'If Lady Alice knew 
her guests to have been concerned in the in- 
surrection, she was undoubtedly guilty of what 
in strictness is a capital crime.'^ 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 139 

Note I. — When the Antecedent is a Collective noun con- 
veying the idea of Unity, the pronoun must agree with it in 
the Singular number; as, "The Court gave its decision in 
favor of the plaintiff." 

Note II. — When the Antecedent is a Collective noun, 
conveying the idea of Plurality, the pronoun must agree 
with it in the Plural number ; as, '' The Senate were divi- 
ded in their opinions." 

Note III. — When the Antecedent is a noun denoting a 
young Child, or an animal which is masculine or feminine, 
without any regard to sex, the pronoun must agree with it 
in the Neuter gender; as, "That is a beautiful child ; how 
old is itf^ "The robin builds its nest near the habitation 
. of men." 

Note IV. — When the Antecedent, in the Singular num- 
ber, is qualified by the adjective many and the article «, it 
may sometimes have the pronoun agree with it in the Plu- 
ral number; as, "But yesterday I saw many a brave war- 
rior, in all the ' pomp and circumstance of war,' marching to 
the battle-field. Where are they now ?" 

Note V. — When the Antecedent, in the plural form, indi^ 
cates a single object, the pronoun is Singular; as, "Young's 
Night Thoughts is worthy a perusal. It is a work of genius." 

Note VI. — When the Antecedent is in fact singular, but 
not expressed, the personal pronoun we is used by mon- 
archs, reviewers, and authors generally, instead of the pro- 
noun /; as, "To pi^omote the prosperity of this kingdom, 
we send forth this our proclamation;" "i<;e owe an apology 
to the public for not noticing this work on its first publica- 
tion." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE X. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Rule X. — a. I know these men, said Monmouth ; they 
will fight. If I had but them, all would go well. C. S. 

h. Every man in the community, whatever may be their 
condition, should contribute to the common weal. F. S. 

c. A milk-white hind, immortal and unchanged, 

Fed on the lawns, and in the forest ranged. 
Without unspotted, innocent within, 
She feared no danger, for she felt no sin. — Deyden. C. S. 

Note I. — The Committee was divided in its opinions. 
F. S. 



140 SYNTAX OF PEONOUlSrS. 

Note II. — The crowd was so great that the judges with 
difficulty made their way through them. F. S. 

Note III.— a. The infant puts its loving hands upon its 
mother's neck. C. S. 

h. The deer, pursued by the hounds, hurried back to its 
old haunts. C. S. 

Note IV. In Hawick twinkled many a light ; 

Behind him soon they set in night. C. S. 

Note V. — Kead "Kent's Commentaries." It will furnish 
you with a clear statement of the doctrine. C S. 

Note VI. — We have taken up this book chiefly for the 
purpose of presenting our own views on the subject of which 
it treats. C. S. 

PERSONAL PKONOUNS. 

EuLE XI.- — The Same Pronoun should not 
refer to Different antecedents in the same sen- 
tence; as, "5e (Philip) wrote to that distin- 
guished philosopher in terms polite and flatter- 
ing, begging of him (Aristotle) to come and un- 
dertake his (Alexander's) education, and to be- 
stow on Mm (Alexander) those useful lessons 
of magnanimity and virtue which every great 
man ought to possess, and which his (Philip's) 
numerous avocations rendered impossible for 
him (Philip)." — GOLDSMITH. 

Note I. — The same or a similar form of the pronoun 
should be preserved throughout the sentence : '^Pain ! pain ! 
be as importunate as yoii please, I shall never own that thou 
art an evil.'* Here either thou or you should be preserved 
throughout. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 141 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XI. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Rule XI. — a. He pursued the fugitive with his man-at- 
arms ; but he, proving treacherous, deserted, and conse- 
quently he made his escape. F. S. 

h. She was devoted to the welfare of her daughter, and 
furnished her with an accomplished governess, but she be- 
came discontented, and sought another home. F. S. 
Note I. — a. Think me not lost, for thee I Heaven implore. 
Thy guardian angel, though a wife no more ; 
I, when abstracted from the world you seem, 
Hint the pure thought, and frame the heavenly dream. F, S. 

b. Thou shalt be required to lie down in death, to go to 
the bar of God, and give up your account. F. S. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

EuLE XII. — The Pronoun and the Anteced- 
ent must not be introduced together as sub- 
jects of the same verb; as, ^'My trees they are 
planted.'^ There are in the language, as writ- 
ten and spoken, numerous exceptions to this 
rule. 

Note I. — When the Name of a person is employed in ap- 
position with a pronoun in the way of explanation, as in 
foraial writings, the two are subjects of the same verb, and 
the pronoun precedes the name ; as, ' ' /, John Hancock, of 
Boston ;" *' Seest thou, Lorenzo, where hangs all our hope?" 

Note II. — The pronoun sometimes precedes the noun 
which it represents in the same clause ; as, ' ' She was seated 
outside of the door, the young actress." — Bulwer. 

Note III. — The pronoun me is sometimes used as an ex- 
pletive, and is equivalent to for^ me ; as, ' ' Rob me the ex- 
chequer. 

Note IV. — The personal pronoun them is sometimes im- 
properly used for the demonstrative pronouns those and 
these; as, '^ Give me Mem books." 

Note V. — Personal pronouns are improperly used in the 
wrong case. See exercises. 



142 SYNTAX OF mONOUNS. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XII. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Rule XII. — a. The commander of the detachment v/^ 
killed, and the soldiers they have all fled. F. S. 
h. The lamb thy riot doom'd to bleed to-day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? C. S. 

Note I. — I, Franklin Pierce, President of the Unite(i 
States. 

Note II. — a. It cm'led not Tv/eed alone that breeze. C. S 

h. It is gone, that sensibility of principle, that chastity of 
honor, which felt a stain like a wound, which inspired cour' 
age while it mitigated ferocity, which ennobled whatever it 
touched, and under which vice lost half its evil by losing all 
its grossness. — Burke. It here represents the "sensibility 
of principle and the chastity of honor." 

Note III. Villain, knock me at this gate, 

And rap me well. — Taviwg of the Shreiv. C. S. 

Note IV. — Do you see them soldiers escorting the gov- 
ernor to the State-house ? F. S. 

Note V. — a. Gentle reader, let you and I, in like man- 
ner, endeavor to improve the inclosure of the car. — Southey. 
Here /should be changed to ?«e. 

b. At an hour 

When all slept sound, save she who bore them both. — Rogers. 

Here the nominative sJie should be changed to the objective 
ker, 

c. It is not fit for such as us to sit with the rulers of the 
land. — Scott. Here *'such as ws" should be changed to 
''such as we." 

d. Stimulated in turn by their approbation, and that of 
better judges than them were, he turned to their literature 
with redoubled energy. — Quarterly Review. It should stand 
*' better judges than they were," not "than them were." 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

EuLE XIII. — Personal pronouns are em- 
ployed without any antecedents when, the nouns 
which they represent are assumed to be well 
known. Thus the pronouns I, thou, you, ye, 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 143 

and WE, representing either the persons speak- 
ing or the persons spoken of, are employed 
without having any antecedents expressed. 

You is nsed indefinitely for any person who 
may read the work in which the word is thus 
used ; as, ^' You may trust an honest man." He 
and THEY are used in the same indefinite man- 
ner; as, ^^He seldom lives frugally who lives 
by chance;" ^'Blessed are they that mourn, for 
they shall be comforted." 

Note I. — The pronoun me is often incorrectly substituted 
for /; as, ^' Who is there ? 7ne ;" ''Is she as tall as me f The 
reason of this erroneous practice seems to lie in the fact that 
there is less consciousness of personality indicated in the 
objective me than in the subjective /. Grammatically, 
too, it seems to us as if / always required something to fol- 
low it. 

Note II. — The use of one number for another is current 
throughout the Gothic languages, as you for thou in the 
English. 

Expressions of respect, like "your Honor," "your Excel- 
lency," "your Highness," are followed more generally by 
pronouns of the third person, but sometimes by pronouns of 
the second person. 

Note III. — a. It is used with verbs called impersonal ; as, 
"/if rains." Here there is no antecedent. 

b. It is used to introduce a sentence, preceding a verb as 
the nominative, but representing a clause that comes after- 
ward ; as, ''It is well known that the Jews were at this 
time under the dominion of the Eomans." Here it repre- 
sents the whole sentence, except the clause in which it 
stands. \'It is to be hoped that v/e shall succeed." 

c. It is used to represent a plural noun ; as, "/if was the 
Romans that aimed at the conquest of the world." 

d. It is used to represent a pronoun of the first, or the 
second, or the third pei*son; as, "/f is I;" ''it is you;" "it 
is he." 

e. It is used to represent a noun in the masculine or the 



144 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

feminine gender; as, '•'• It was Judas who betrayed his 
Master." 

f. It is used to express a general condition or state ; as, 
'' How is it with you ?" 

g. It is used after intransitive verbs in an indefinite way ; 
as, *' Whether the charmer sinner it or saint i7;" *'The 
mole courses it not on the ground." 

When the sentence admits of two nominatives, we now 
make it the subject of the verb. Anciently it was the pred- 
icate. 

" It am I 
That loveth so hot Emilie the bright, 
That I would die present in her sight." — Chaucer. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XIII. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
Rule XIII. — a. Thou and I will attend church to-day. 

c.s. 

b. You may hunt through the nation without finding his 
equal. C. S. 

c. He is the wise man who selects the best means for ob- 
taining the best ends. C. S. 

d. He is the freeman whom the truth makes free. C. S. 

e. They are worthy of confidence from men who have 
given their hearts to God. C. S. 

Note I. — Unless, as I said, messieurs, you are the masters, 
and not me. F. S. 

Note 11. — a. Will they ride ? (An English equivalent for 
this German form is. Will you ride?) 

h. Will your worship furnish me with the opinion of the 
court? C.S. 

Note III.— a. It snows, and the night is cold. 

h. It was supposed that the French army were marching 
out of Spain. 

c. It was the Americans who first applied steam to navi- 
gation. 

d. Who went to Boston on that business ? It was I. 

e. It was Murat who led the cavalry in that battle, 
yi How is it with our general this morning ? 

g. In their pride they lorded it over the land. 
Come and trip it as you go, 
On the light fantastic to«. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 145 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

EuLE XIV. — Two or more Antecedents, 
united by and^ require their pronoun to be in 
the Plural Number; as, '^Socrates and Plato 
were wise ; they were the most eminent philos- 
ophers of Greece." 

Note I. — But if the Antecedents describe one person or 
thing, though connected by and^ they are in apposition, and 
do not require a plural pronoun ; as, ** That philosopher and 
poet spent his life in the service of mankind." 

Note II. — If the Singular Antecedents united in construc- 
tion are of several persons, the second person takes prece- 
dence of the third, and the first of both, in forming the plu- 
ral of the representative pronoun; as, *'Thou and he shared 
it between you;'''' *' James, and thou, and I are attached to 
Ofwr country." 

Note III. — In the Classical languages, the pronoun of 
the First person is deemed more worthy than that of the 
Second, and the Second than that of the Third. But 
though we in like manner place the pronoun of the second 
person before that of the third, we modestly place the pro- 
noun of the first person after those of the second and third. 

Cardinal Wolsey, in conformity with the Latin idiom, 
wrote, Ego et rex mens, *'I and my king;" but it gave of- 
fense, as if he wished to take precedence of his sovereign. 

Note IV. — When two antecedents in the Singular Num- 
ber connected by and are contrasted with each other, they do 
not require a plural pronoun ; as, '' The captain, and not the 
lieutenant, was by the court-martial removed from ^2*5 office." 

Note V. — When two or more antecedents in the Singular 
Number are connected by the conjunction and and preceded 
by each or every, they do not require a plural pronoun ; as, 
*'Each plant and each animal has its peculiar character." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XIV. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Rule XIV. — a. Virtue and truth is in itself convincing. 
F. S. 

K 



146 SYNTAX OF PEOKOUNS. 

h. "Webster, Clay, and Calhcun are now numbered with 
the illustrious dead. They were distinguished patriots and 
statesmen. C. S. 

c. Demosthenes and Cicero were the most distinguished 
orators of classic times. Their eloquence has ever been ad- 
mired by the learned world. They were both eminent pa- 
triots. C. S. 

Note I. — a. My guide, philosopher, and friend, as Pope 
calls Bolingbroke, devoted his splendid talents to the service 
of infidelity. C. S. 

b. That superficial scholar and critic, like some renowned 
critics of our own, have furnished most decisive proofs that 
they knew not the characters of the Hebrew language. F. S. 

Note II. — a. In the arrangements thou and he will suit 
themselves. F. S. 

h. Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsmen must share 
this business among them. F. S. 

Note III. — I, and John, and you were present at the in- 
auguration. F. S. 

Note IV. — a. Principle and not profession has an efl^- 
ciency of its own. C. S. 

b. Good order in our affairs, not mean saving, produce 
great profits to those who use them. F. S. 

Note V. — Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water 
teem with their own life. F. S. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

EuLE XY. — Two or more Antecedents in 
the Singular Number, separated in construction 
by the Disjunctive Conjunction or, or in any 
Other way, require the pronoun to be in the 
singular number ; as, ^^ John or James will send 
Ms book;" *'The Bible, and not the Koran, is 
read there: its influence is salutary;" *^ Every 
tree and every plant produces others after its 
kind." 

Note I. — A Plural antecedent and a Singular antecedent, 



SYNTAX OF PROKOUNS. 147 

connected by or or 7?or, require the pronoun to be in the 
plural number; as, "Neither the captain nor his men 
showed themselves. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XV. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Rule XV. — a. Henry or William will give us their com- 
pany. F. S. 

b. When did we ever find a well-educated Englishman or 
Frenchman embarrassed by an ignorance of their respective 
languages? F. S. 

Note I. — a. Neither the general nor his officers showed 
himself. F. S. 

b. Neither the president nor the members of his cabinet 
avow that they are in favor of the measure. C. S. 



§ 110. EuLE XVI. — The word self is used 
as a Reflective Personal Pronoun; as, *'I hurt 
myself f'' ^Hhey wounded themselves!''' 

Note I. — The constructions of the word self are three- 
fold : 

a. Government. — In my -self, thy-seJf ourselves, ?a\di your- 
selves, the construction is that of a common substantive, with 
an adjective or genitive case. b. Apposition. — In himself 
and themselves, w^hen accusative, the construction is that of 
a substantive in apposition with a pronoun, c. Composi- 
tion. — When they are used as nominatives, the construction 
can be explained on another principle. The only logical 
view that can be taken of the matter is to consider the words 
himself, themselves, not as two words, but as a single word 
compounded. 

Note 11. — Compounds of self take the inflection of sub- 
stantives in the plural ; as. Ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 
Myself, thyself, himself, itself, and herself, are naturally sin- 
gular, and can under no circumstances become plural. 
Themselves is naturally plural, and under no circumstances 
can become singular. Ourselves and yourselves are natural- 
ly plural, yet under certain circumstances may become sin- 



148 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

gular. a. Just as men say we for /, may they say our for 
7ny. b. Just as men say you for tkouj so may they say yow 
for thy. 

Note III. — When the adjective oivn intervenes between 
SELF and its personal pronoun, the personal pronoun is al- 
ways put in the genitive case ; as, His own self^ not hitriown 
self; their own selves^ not them own selves. 

Note IV. — When myself or thyself stands alone, the 
verb that follows is usually in the first or second person, 
though sometimes in the third; as, '•^ Myself am hell." — 
Milton. '' And that myself am blind. " — Pope. When my^ 
self or thyself is preceded by / or thou^ the verb that follows 
is in the first person or second : / myself am (not is) weak ; 
thou thyself art (not is) weak. 

Note V. — Myself is often incorrectly used instead of the 
nominative I and the objective me. Its legitimate usage is 
either as a Reflective pronoun, or for the sake of Distinction 
and some particular emphasis; as when Juliet cries, "Ro- 
meo, doff* thy name ; and for that name, which is no part 
of thee, take all my self. ^^ '■''Thyself how wondrous thenP^ 
In expressions like the following : Mrs. Tompkins and my^ 
self will he happy to take dinner ; Mrs. Johnson and myself 
have been writing to each other ; myself is incorrectly used for 
the pronoun /. 

Note VI. — The simple pronoun is sometimes used re- 
flectively : 

*^ "• E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 

I sit me down a weary hour to spend." — Goldsmith. 

"He sat hi7]i down at a pillar's base." — Byeon. 

In the phrase I strike me, the verb strike is transitive ; in 
other words, the word me expresses the object of an action, 
and the meaning is diff'erent from the meaning of the simple 
expression / strike. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XVI. 

Rule XV|. — In his anger he struck himself. C. S. 
"We strike Courselves" is strictly Reflective; "we strike 
each other" is Reciprocal. 

Note I. — a. I will go myself to the post-office. C. S. 

b. I will see John himself on this business. C. S. 

c. He himself will go to New York. C. S. 

Note II. — He suffers, but the fault is in ourselves. C. S. 




SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 149 

Note III. — a. He is obliging, but he loves his own dcai* 
self. C. S. 

h. The ill opinion of mankind is often misplaced ; but our 
own of ourselves, never. — John Randolph. C. S. 

Note IV. — I am mindful that myself (am or is) strong. 
C. S. 

Note V. — My brother, my sister, and myself will come. 
F. S. 

Note VI. — a. Salem, in ancient majesty- 
Arise and lift thee to the sky ! — S. Waeton. C. S. 

b. During the preparatory scene, sit thee down. C. S. 
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

. EuLE XVII. — The Demonstrative 
Pronouns this, that, these, and those, rep- 
resent nouns only in the third person ; they are 
used by the first person, or the person speak- 
ing, to point out to the second person some ob- 
ject; as, ^^Eeligion raises men above them- 
selves; irreligion sinks them beneath the 
brutes : that binds them down to a poor pitia- 
ble speck of earth ; this opens for them a pros- 
pect in the skies.^^JL^ 

Note I. — When thib and that, these and those, are 
usbd in the sense of latter and former^ this and these stand 
for the "latter," that and those for the "former:" 

' Then palaces and lofty domes arose ; 
These for devotion, and for pleasure those. ''^ 

Note II. — The personal pronoun them is sometimes im- 
properly used for these and those; as, "Give me thevi 
books," for "give me those books." This error can be his- 
torically accounted for by referring to the demonstrative 

power of THEM. 



150 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XVII. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rule XVII. — a. Spain was carrying on war against our 
trade, and that in the most insulting manner, during the 
whole time of our negotiations. — Lord Chatham. C. S. 

b. Lord Carlisle's recent lecture upon Pope, addressed to 
an audience of artisans, drew the public attention first of all 
upon himself — that was in(^'itable. — De Quincey. C. S. 

Note I. — a. Errors in the life breed errors in the brain, 
And these reciprocally those again. C. S. 

b. Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 

Those call it pleasure, and contentment these. C. S. 

Note II. — Do you not admire them trees on the com- 
mon? F. S. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 112. EuLE XVIII. — Eelative Pronouns 
agree with their antecedents in gender, nnm- 
ber, and person; as, ^^God rules the world 
which he created;" ^'O Thou luho dwellest in 
the heavens." 

Note I. — Relative pronouns serve to connect propositions; 
as, "The friend who relieved me has come.'* Here are two 
propositions, 1. The friend has come; 2. The friend (oy he) 
relieved me. These two propositions are connected by the 
relative who, which expresses the identity between the per- 
sons mentioned in the proposition. The proposition in which 
the relative stands has been called the Relative Proposition. 

Note II. — When there are two words in a clause, each 
capable of being an antecedent, the relative refers to the 
latter: 1. Solomon, the son of David, who slew Goliath. This 
is unexceptionable. 2. Solomon, the son of David, who built 
the Temple. This is exceptionable. The relative should be 
placed as near as possible to the antecedent, to prevent am- 
biguity; as, Solomon, who built the temple, was the son oj 
David. 

Note III. — a. Who^ and whom represent nouns of the 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUKS. 151 

masculine gender and of the feminine gender; as, "The 
man who came;" ''the woman who came." 

6. Who is sometimes used indefinitely without an antece- 
dent; as, ''I do not care If Ao knows it." 

c. Which represents nouns used for infants, for irrational 
animals, and for inanimate things ; as, * ' The child which I 
saw is learning to walk ;" "The bird which sang so sweetly 
has flown ;" "The rivers which flow into the sea are fed by 
rains." 

There are many cases, however, in which who is used for 
animals; as, "Every body knows the beautiful story of the 
dog Argos, who just lives through the term of his master's 
absence." The propriety of this use of who is by some gram- 
marians deemed questionable. 

d. Which formerly was used as a representative of per- 
sons ; as, ''Mighty men which were of old." 

e. Whose represents nouns of the masculine gender, of 
the feminine gender, and of the neuter gender ; as, " The 
man ivhose name was John;'''' "the woman whose name was 
Jane;^^ ^^ the fruit whose name is banana." 

That, as a relative, is generally used, 

(a.) After superlatives; as, "The ivisest man that ever 
lived is liable to error." 

(6.) After the word same; as, "He is the same man that 
came yesterday." 

(c.) After a collective noun denoting a body of persons ; as, 
"The army that marched out to battle has been defeated." 

(d.) After who, taken interrogatively; as, "Who that has 
the spirit of a man would sufi'er himself to be thus degraded ?" 

(e.) After persons and things taken conjointly; as, "The 
men emd things that we saw yesterday." 

That used as a relative does not admit a preposition be- 
fore it ; as, " He is the same man with that you were ac- 
quainted ;" but we say, "He is the same man that you were 
acquainted with.'''' 

Note IV. — ^When relatives connected by a conjunction re- 
fer to the same antecedent, they should not change their 
form; as, "He that defeated the Austrian armies in Italy, 
and who afterward marched to Vienna at the head of his 
veteran soldiers." Instead of change of form, the relative 
in each case should be either who or that. 

Note V. — Collective nouns, unless they express persons 
directly, require the relative which or that; as, "He in- 
structed the crowds which surrounded him." Here who 



152 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

would be improper. ''The people who claim to be judges 
in the case proceeded to inflict lynch law upon him." Here 
the personality is more distinctly brought out ; accordingly, 
who is proper. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XVIII. 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rule XVIII. — a. Henry is a pupil which possesses fine 
talents. F. S. 

b. Curran ! Curran's the man who struck me most. Such 
imagination ! There never was any thing like it. He was 
a wonderful man, even to me who had seen many remark- 
able men of the time. — Byron. C. S. 

c. And now, when I saw myself declining day by day, I 
turned to those elevating and less earthly meditations, which 
supply us, as it were, with wings, when the first fail. They 
have been dearer to me than the dreams which they succeed- 
ed, and they whisper to me of a brighter immortality than 
that of fame. C. S. 

Note I. — I closely pursued John, who swiftly fled from 
me. C. S. 

Note II. — a. Joseph, the son of Jacob, who deceived his 
father. C. S. 

b. Joseph, the son of Jacob, who was Governor of Egypt. 
F. S. 

c. The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry, 
who had never done so unjust an action. F. S. 

Note III.— a. Those who seek Wisdom will find her. C. S. 
I am happy in the friend whom I have long proved. C. S. 

b. Can you tell me who did this shameful act ? C. S. 

c. The infant whom you admired died suddenly. F. S. 
He is like a beast of prey who destroys without pity. F. S. 
I hope you will enjoy the book which I have sent you. 

C. S. 

d. Our Father, which art in heaven. 

e. To those faithful friends, whose unchanging regard 
has entered into the happiness of all the active years of my 
life, I make my affectionate acknowledgments, as I now part 
from a work in which they have always taken an interest, 
and which, wherever it goes, will carry on its pages the si- 
lent proofs of their kindness and taste.— Ticknor. C. S. 

We have a religion whose origin is divine.— Blair, C. S. 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 163 

(a.) The bravest man that ever fought might have trem- 
bled. C. S. 

(6.) She is the same lady that I saw yesterday. C. S. 

(c.) The convention that assembled yesterday has been 
dissolved. C. S. 

(d.) Who that hopes to succeed would venture on an ex- 
pedient like this ? C. S. 

(e.) The soldiers and tents that we saw yesterday we will 
visit to-day. C. S. 

Note IV.— He that wrote the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, and who was the third President of the United States. 
E. S. 

Note V. — The court, who gives currency to manners, 
ought to be exemplary. F. S. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

EuLE XIX. — The relative employed to in- 
troduce a new clause is nominative to the verb 
belonging to that clause; as, *'The thirst after 
curiosities, which often draws contempt, was 
strongly developed;" ^^He who suffers not his 
faculties to lie torpid, has a chance of doing 
good ;" ^' The steamer that left this port on Sat- 
urday has been seen." 

Note I. — But if, in the new clause, there is a nominative 
between the relative and the verb, then the relative is gov- 
erned in the possessive case by a noun, or in the objective 
case by a verb or a preposition ; as, " God is the sovereign 
of the vmiverse, whose majesty ought to fill us with awe ; to 
ivhom we owe all possible reverence, and whom we are hound 
to obey." Though the relative must be in the same gender 
and the same number as the antecedent, it ne"ed not be in 
the same case. 

Note II. — The antecedent is sometimes placed after the 
relative ; as, '•''Whom the cap fits, let him put it on." 

Note III. — The antecedent is sometimes suppressed when 
no emphasis is implied; as, '•'•Who steals my purse steals 
trash." He or the man is here understood. 



154 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 

Note IV. — The relatives are often suppressed; as, **Tht; 
friend I visited yesterday." Here whom is understood. 

Note V. — The relative sometimes refers to a whole clause, 
or to an adjective instead of a noun ; as, *' He was generally 
despised, which occasioned much uneasiness;" *'As Judas 
declared him innocent, which he could not be, had he in any 
way deceived his disciples." — Porteus's Lect. Here which 
represents the adjective innocent. 

Note VI. — The relative is sometimes used as an adjec- 
tive ; as, '' His early friend, ivhich friend was his ruin." 

Note VII. — When the name of a person is used merely 
as a name, and does not refer to the person, the relative 
which should be used, and not who ; Si?,, '*It is no wonder if 
such a man did not shine at the Court of Queen Elizabeth ; 
Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and 
economy." 

Note VIII.-— In some instances, which is introduced as the 
nominative to l. ^erb, before the sentence or clause which it 
represents ; as, " There was therefore, which is all that we 
assert, a course of life pursued by them different from that 
which they before led." — Paley's Evidences, ch. i. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XIX. 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rule XIX. — a. They who have labored to make us wise 
are entitled to our gratitude. C. S. 

h. He who died for his country is worthy of remembrance. 
C. S. 

Note I. — a. The persons who conscience and virtue sup- 
port may smile at the caprices of misfortune. F. S. 

h. That is the student who I gave the book to. F. S. 

c. This is the man whose virtues are admired. C. S. 

Note II. — Who lives to virtue, he lives to wisdom-. C. S. 

Note III. — a. Who lives to virtue rarely can be poor. C. S. 

&. How wearisome 

Eternity so spent in worship paid 

To whom we hate!— Par. Lost^ b. i., 249. C. S. 

Note IV. — a. W^hat is mine, even to my life, is hers I 
love ; but the secret of my friend is not mine. — Sir P. SyD'» 

KEY. C. S. 

b. I hear a voice you can not hear, 

Which says I must not stay ; 
I see a hand you can not see, 
Which beckons me away. — Tickel. C. SL 



SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 155 

Not& /. — a. In that battle he acted cowardly, which ru- 
ined his, i'^putation. C. S. 

b. A v^an should never be ashamed to own that he has 
been in the wrong, which is but saying in other words that 
he is wiser to-day than he was yesterday. — Pope. C. S. 

Note VI.— The measure was sustained by one of the mem- 
bers, but by which member I do not know. C. S. 

Note VII. — He suiFered martyrdom under Nero, who was 
but another name for cruelty. F. S. 

Note VIII. — There was, which can be proved, a great 
change in the politics of the party. C. S. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

EuLE XX. — The relative what has the sense 
of that whichj and can be at the same time both 
in the nominative and the objective case; as, 
" I have heard what has been alleged." Here 
zuhat is in the objective case, and governed by 
heard; and also in the nominative case to has 
been alteged, 

A dependent clause after what or its compounds has the 
syntax of a substantive; as, ''I have heard what is said;'''' 
*'what is said" is the direct object of heard, *' I know what 
is righty 

What does not admit an antecedent; it is either an ad- 
jective or a pronoun of indefinite signification, and is con- 
structed in its own clause. See § 43. 

Note I. — What is sometimes used adverbially as equiva- 
lent to somewhat— somewhit= something, partly/; as, "The 
year before he had so used the matter, that what by force, 
and what by policy, he had taken from the Christians about 
thirty castles." 

Note 11. — What is also used improperly instead of the 
conjunction that; as, "I can not say but what he did it." 
That is improperly used for what ; as, "We speak that we 
do know, and testify that we have seen." 

Note III. — What is sometimes used as an interjection ; 
as, ^'What/ even denied a cordial at his end?" — Pope. 

Note IV. — What and its compounds are often used as ad- 



156 SYNTAX OF TEONOUNS. 

jectives; as, **It is not material what names are assigned 
to them ;" " whatsoever thing is loVely." 

Note V. — The pronouns whatsoever, whichsoever, 
WHOSOEVER, and the like, are elegantly divided by the in- 
terposition of the corresponding substantive; as, ''In what 
light soever we view him, his conduct will bear inspection." 

Note VI. — Whether, in the sense of which of two, was 
anciently used as a relative pronoun; as, "Let them take 
whether they will." 

Note VII. — The word where, which, in its origin, is re- 
lated to what, is often equivalent to that in ivhich ; as, 
''Perhaps there is no situation the human mind can be 
placed in so difficult and so trying as where it is made the 
judge of its ov/n cause." — Lord Mansfield. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XX. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Rule XX. — a. When he saw what had been done, he 
lifted lip his voice and wept. C. S. 

b. I have been through the market without being able to 
find what I wanted. C. S. 

Note I. — Thus, what with war, and what with sweat, 
what with the gallows, and what with poverty, I am cus- 
tom shrunk. C. S. 

Note II. — a. He would not be persuaded but what I was 
greatly in fault. F. S. 

b. In the interview he did not say but what he did it. F. S. 

c. If a man read little, he had need to have much cunning, 
to seem to know that he doth not. F. S. 

Note III. — What ! to attribute the sacred sanctions of God 
and Nature to the massacres of the Indian scalping-knife ! 
C. S. 

Note IV. — By what means can you gain the end you aim 
at? 

Note V. — On what side soever I turn my eyes, I behold 
all full of courage and strength. C. S. 

Note VI. Whither when they come they fell at words 

Wliether of them should be the Lord of lords. C. S. 

Note VII. — Indeed, I can not help likening his charac- 
ter to the architectural fabrics of other ages which he most 
delighted in, where there is such a congregation of imagery 
and tracery that one is apt to get bewildered among the va- 



SYNTAX OF PEONOUNS. 157 

riety of particular impressions, and not feel either the unity 
of the grand design or the height and solidness of the struc- 
ture. — LOCKHART. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

§ 113. EuLE XXI. — The principal noun or 
pronoun in the answer to a question must be 
in the same case with the corresponding inter- 
rogative word: Direct. Quest Who is this? 
Ans. I. Quest Whose is this? Ans, His, 
Quest Whom do you seek? Ans. Him, Ob- 
lique. Quest Who do you say that it is? 
Ans, He, Quest Whose do you say that it is ? 
Ans, His, Quest Whom do you say that they 
seek? Alls. Him, 

exercises under rule XXL 
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

a. Who has called for me ? Him. F. S. 

b. Whose books have you? John's. C. S. 

c. What are poets and philosophers but torch-bearers lead- 
ing us through the mazes and recesses of God's two majes- 
tic temples, the sensible and the spiritual world ? C. S. 

But envy had no place in his nature. Whom was there 
to envy ? — Bdlwer. This form should be avoided. 

INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

§ 114. EuLE XXII. — I. One, in phrases hke 
ONE SAYS = they ssij=r.on dit^ French, is used 
Indeterminately. The pronoun has no partic- 
ular antecedent : '' One^s leaning at first would 
be toward it." 



158 SYNTAX OF PROXOUNS. 

II. It also is "used Indeterminately either as 
tlie subject or the predicate of a proposition; 
as, '' It is this ;" '' this is it ;" '' I am it f '' it is 
I." When it is the subject of a proposition, 
the verb necessarily agrees with it, and can be 
of the singular number only, no matter what 
be the number of the predicate : It is this ; it is 
these. When it is the predicate of a proposi- 
tion, the number of the verb depends on the 
number of the subject. 

III. There, adverbial in its classification, 
but pronominal in its origin, is also used Inde- 
terminately, but only as the predicate of a prop- 
osition. There is this ; there are these. Though 
a predicate, there always stands in the begin- 
ning of propositions, i, e., in the place of the 
subject. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXII. 
INDETERMINATE PRONOUNS. 

Rule XXII. — I. a. One would imagine these to be the 
expressions of a man blessed with ease and affluence, C. S. 
h. One might visit Paris in the interval. C. S. 

n. — a. 'Tis two or three, my lord, that bring you word 

Macduff is fled to England. — Macbeth^ iv., 1. C. S. 

h. 'Tis these that early taint the female soul. — Pope. C. S. 

The indeterminate pronoun was formerly omitted ; as, 
Now said the lady draweth toward the night. — F. Q.^ I. L, 22. 

III. — a. There are those who express a different opinion. 

b. There's two or three of us have seen strange sights. 

Julius Ccesar, 



SYNTAX OF PKONOUKS. 159 

RECIPROCAL PROKOUNS. 

§ 115. EuLE XXIII.— In the phrases ''They 
love EACH OTHER," ''they killed one another," 
there is a Eeciprocal construiition. In the one 
case, each is in apposition with they, or included 
in it, in the nominative case ; in the other, one 
is in apposition with they^ or includeid in it: in 
both, other is in the objective case./^ 

In a reciprocal construction, two or more propositions are 
abbreviated into one ; as, ^' John and Henry love each oth- 
er" ='' John loves Henry, and Henry loves John. " Another 
refers to one of many, the other to one of two : "Two men 
were standing on the road, and another came up;" *'Two 
men were standing on the road : one walked away, and the 
other remained." Another is sometimes improperly used for 
each other : "These two kinds of diction, prose and poetry, 
are so different one from another.''^ Here each other is the 
correct phraseology. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXIII. 
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS. 

Rule XXIII. — a. William and Charles faithfully sought 
each other. C. S. 

h. William, Charles, and Eliza generously helped one an- 
other. C. S. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON PRONOUNS. 

Language is the depository of the accumulated body of 
experience to which all former ages have contributed their 
part, and which is the inheritance of all yet to come. We 
have no right to prevent ourselves from transmitting to pos- 
terity a larger portion of this inheritance than we may our*- 
selves have profited by. — Mill's Logic, p. 413. 

The eager love of knowledge, and the no less eager lore 
of action ; the impulse to know^ and the impulse to do: 



160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

these arc elements spontaneously at work in human nature, 
and may appropriately be termed philosophical elements. — 
H. P. Tappan. 

Keats, a little before he died, said, * ' I feel the daisies 
growing over me." 

Utility is the great idol of the age, to which all powers 
stoop, and all talents do homage. 

But if, which Heaven forbid ! it hath still been unfortu- 
nately determined that, because he hath not bent to power 
and authority, because he would not bow down before the 
golden calf and worship it, he is to be bound and cast into 
the furnace, I do trust in God there is a redeeming spirit in 
the Constitution, which will be seen to walk with the suf- 
ferer through the flames, and to preserve him unhurt by the 
conflagration. — Curran. 

When there is a question of peace or war between two 
iiations, that government feels itself in the wrong which re- 
fuses to state with clearness and precision what she would 
consider as a satisfaction and a pledge of peace. — C.J. Fox. 



CHAPTER V. 

SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 



CONCORD. 

§ 116. EuLE XXIV.— The Verb agrees with 
its Subject nominative in Number and Person ; 
as, ^'I t(;nfe;" ^^ thou o^idest ;^^ ^^heobeys^ 

The verb does not necessarily agree with its 
Predicate nominative. See note below. 

Every finite verb must have a subject nomin- 
ative expressed or understood. 

Note I. — Plural Subjects with singular Predicates: 
*' Honest men are the salt of the earth;" '* Christians are 
the light of the world." The word that comes first must be 
presumed to be the subject until the contrary is proved. 



SYNTAX OF THE VEEB. 161 

The way to justify such an expression as the wages of sin is 
deaths is either to consider ofea^^ not as the predicate b.it the 
subject, or, with Webster, to consider the word wa^cs as 
singular. 

Note II. — Singular Subjects with plural Predicates. 
These constructions are rarer than the preceding, inasmuch 
as two or more persons (or things) are oftener spoken of as 
being equivalent to one, than one person (or thing) is spoken 
of as being equivalent to two or more : '' Sixpence is twelve 
halfpennies;" "He is all head and shoulders." 

Note III. — A Plural title applied to a Single object often 
takes the singular verb ; as, *' The Pleasures of Memory, by 
Rogers, is an admirable work." 

Note IV.— The pronoun you, even when used to denote 
an individual, inasmuch as its form is plural, should have a 
plural verb : '* The account you ivere pleased to send me," 
not "the account you was pleased to send me." 

Note V. — A verb in the third person may have as its sub- 
ject a sentence, or the clause of a sentence, or a ve7'h in the in- 
finitive mode, or any part of speech used as a noun; as, '' To 
■ attack vices in the abstract, without touching persons, may be 
safe fighting indeed, but it is fighting with shadows ;" " To 
see is desirable;" '•''Red and green are different colors;" 
*' Once is too often;" '^ Over is not under ;^^ "An if ruins 
the case;" '^ Ah! is an interjection." 

Note VI. — There is one phrase in present use in which 
the personal pronoun me precedes a verb in the third per- 
son : methinks, methought. Anciently, him was used in the 
same manner; as, Him thuhte, him thought. Him and me 
are here in the Anglo-Saxon dative case. Me thinks=it 
seems to iae=mihi videtur. 

Note VII. — In poetry, the verb may stand without a nom- 
inative in cases where in prose the omission would be im- 
proper; as, "Lives there who loves his pain?" — Milton. 
That is, lives there a man who loves his pain? 

Note VIII. — Verbs in the Imperative mode generally 
agree with the pronouns thou, ye, or you expressed or under- 
stood; as, Love {thou); read ye or you. It is sometimes 
difficult to define the precise subject addressed; as, "God 
said. Let there be light, and there was light." — Gen., i., 3. 

Note IX. — A verb following the conjunction than some- 
times stands without a nominative expressed; as, "Not 
that any thing occurs in consequence of our late loss more 
afflictive than was to be expected." — Life of Coivper, Letter 
L 



162 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

62. Forms of expression like this are elliptical: ^'More 
afflictive than that which was to be expected." 

Note X,-— The verb is in some cases understood ; as, "The 
combat deepens — on, ye brave !" Here rush ox press is un- 
derstood before on. 

Note XI. — The same form of the verb, whether simple, 
progressive, or emphatic, should be preserved throughout 
the sentence; as, ''The Lord giveth and the Lord taketh 
away;" ''That man loves his friends and hates his ene- 
mies;" "He was writing and he is loriting ;" f He did love 
and he does love^ 

EXERCISES IN THE SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

Rule XXIV. — a. A bee among the flowers of spring is 
one of the most cheerful objects that can be looked upon. 
C. S. 

h. The Normans, under which general term is compre- 
hended the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, were accus- 
tomed to rapine and slaughter. F. S. 

c. Thinks I to myself, He will know better when he is 
older. F. S. 

d. What signifies good opinions, unless they are attended 
by good conduct? F. S. 

Note I. — a. Moneys is your suit. 

What should I say to you ? F. S. 

h. In the wilderness locusts were his meat. C. S. 

Note II. — a. As to his person, he is all head and shoul-- 
ders. C. S. 

h. In Federal money a dime is ten cents. C. S. 

Note HI. — The Pleasures of the Imagination, by Aken- 
side, is a highly philosophical poem. C. S. 

Note IV.— a. I came to see you because I knew you was 
my old master's friend. F. S. 

h. I recollect you was his advocate in that important trial. 
F. S. 

Note v.— «. Early to bed, and early to rise, 

Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. C. S. 

h. Read, read, rang through the air morning, noon, and 
night, like the muezzins' call to prayer from the tops of their 
gilded minarets. — Nuces Philosophicce, p. 484. C. S. 

c. That warm climates should accelerate the growth of 
the human body, and shorten its duration, is very reasona- 
ble to believe. C. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 163 

d. "I can not do it" never accomplished any thing; *'I 
will try" has wrought wonders. — Hawes. 

e. For a lady to conduct herself in this manner is dis- 
graceful. C. S. 

Note VI. — Methinks already I your tears survey. C. S. 

Note VII. — There have been that have delivered them- 
selves from their ills by their good fortune or their virtue. 
F. S. 

Note VIII. — The expense amounted to, say five dollars. 
C. S. 

Note IX. — He felt himself addicted to philosophical spec- 
ulations with more ardor than consisted well with the duties 
of a Roman and a senator. C. S. 

Note X.— a. Charge, Chester, charge! on, Stanley, on! C. S. 

6. Once more unto the breach, my friends, once more, 

Or close the wall up with our English dead. C. S. 

Note XL — He was writing, and he does now write. F. S. 
\/ THE VERB. 

^ % 117. EULE XXV.— When a verb has two 
OR MORE SUBJECTS ill the singular number, 
joined by the copulative and^ it must take the 
plural number; as, ^''Reason and truth constitute 
intellectual gold." The conjunction is some- 
times understood ; as, ^' Honor, justice, religion 
itself, were derided." 

Note I. — This rule has in the practice of writers some ex- 
ceptions : * ' Nor were the young fellows so wholly lost to a 
sense of right, as pride and self-conceit has made them affect 
to be." — Rambler, No. 97. Here the verb, which is express- 
ed after self-conceit, is considered as understood after pride, 
'* Their safety and welfare is most concerned." — Spectator, 
No. 121. 

Note II. — Two or more nouns connected by the conjunc- 
tion and, expressed or understood, and modified by the dis- 
tributives EACH, EVERY, or EITHER, may have a verb in the 
singular number: "Either sex and every age luas engaged 
in the pursuits of industry." — Gibbon's Roman Empire, chap. 



164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

X. **The judicial and every other power is aceountable to 
the legislative." — Paley's Philosophi/, vi., 8. 

Note III. — Where comparison is expressed or implied, and 
not combination, the verb should be singular ; thus, " Caesar 
as well as Cicero was remarkable for eloquence." Even 
when and is used between two nouns, if a disuniting word is 
used with it, the verb should be in the singular number; 
as, ''Good order, and not mean savings, produces honest 
profit." 

Note IV.— When a verb comes in between its nominatives, 
it agrees with that which precedes it, and is understood as 
to the others; as, "John was present, and Henrj, and 
Charles." 

Note V. — ^When tw^o nouns connected by the conjunction 
and express but one subject, the verb should be in the singu- 
lar number; as, "That great statesman and general is en- 
titled to the gratitude of his country." 

Note VI.— When nominatives to the same verb are of dif- 
ferent persons, the verb must be in the plural number, and 
must agree with the first person rather than the second, and 
with the second rather than the third: "My sister and I 
are daily employed in our respective occupations." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXV.' 

Rule XXV. — a. Religion and virtue, our best support 
and highest honor, confers on the mind principles of noble 
independence. F. S. 

b. There is as much real religion and morality in this 
country as in any other. F. S. 

c. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden 
mediocrity. F. S. 

Note I. — a. In that transaction their safety and welfare is 
most concerned. F. S. 

b. The fragrant woodbine and the sweet-scented myrtle 
renders the air in this spot truly delicious. F. S. 

Note II. — In the camp of Israel every man and every 
woman were numbered. F. S. 

Note III. — a. That superficial scholar and critic, like 
some renowned critics of our own, have furnished most de- 
cisive proofs that they knew^ not the characters of the He- 
brew^ language. F. S. 

b. Virtuous effort, and not depraved genius, win the 
prize. F. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 165 

Note IV. Forth in the pleasing spring 

Thy beauty walks^ thy tenderness and love. — Thomson. C. S. 

Note V. — Coleridge, that distinguished philosopher and 
celebrated poet, are receiving the meed of praise. F. S. 

Note VI. — You and the doctor thinks unfavorably of my 
case. F. S. 

THE VERB. 

§ 118. EULE XXVI.— When a verb has for 
its subject only one of two or more substan- 
tives singular, connected by the conjunctions 
or or nor J it is itself in the singular number; 
as, ^'Either John, or Peter, or James was at 
the Exchange yesterday, biit neither John nor 
Peter is there to-day." 

Note I. — When a verb has nominatives of different per- 
sons connected by the disjunctive conjunctions oi- or no?', it 
must agree with that which is nearest; as, '^Neither you 
nor I am concerned." 

Note II. — When a verb has a Singular and a Plural nom- 
inative connected by or or nor, it agrees with its nearest 
nominative; as, "The dice-box or his cups ivere his ruin." 

Note III. — In sentences where there is but one proposition, 
when two or more subjects of different persons are in appo- 
sition, the verb agrees with the first of them; as, "/, your 
master, command you;" *'Your master, I, commands you." 
The idea that comes first is the leading idea, and controls 
the construction of the verb. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXVI. 

Rule XXVI. — a. There are many faults in spelling which 
neither analogy nor pronunciation justify. F. S. 

b. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect 
us, the sincerity of friendship is proved. F. S. 

Note I. — I or thou am the person who must undertake 
the business proposed. F. S. 

Note II. — a. For the consequences of this transaction be 
or they is responsible. F. S. 



166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

h. The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of riclies, has 
choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising mind. F. S. 

Note III. — Your father, I, loves you ; I, your father, love 
you. C. S. 

THE VERB. 

§ 119. EuLE XXVII.— When a verb has for 
its subject a Collective noun, it can be either 
in the Singular or the Plural number; as, 
*^The council is or o.re unanimous;" ''The 
company was or luere collected;" "A part of 
the exports consists or consist of raw silk." 

Note I. — When the collective noun indicates unity, a Sin- 
gular verb should be used ; when it indicates plurality, a 
Plural verb should be used. In general, modern practice 
inclines to the use of a plural verb, especially when persons 
and not things are signified by the collective noun; as, 
*' The clergy began to withdraw themselves from the tempo- 
ral courts." — Blackstone. *'The chorus prepare resist- 
ance at his first approach ; the chorus sings of the battle."-— 
Johnson's Life of Milton. 

When a collective noun is preceded by a definitive which 
clearly limits the sense of the word to the idea of unity, it 
requires a verb and a pronoun to agree with it in the singu- 
lar number ; as, " A company of troops was raised ; " " This 
people has become a great nation." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXVIL 

Rule XXVIL — a. An army was led through the wilder- 
ness against him. C. S. 

h. After the battle the army were scattered through the 
provinces. C. S. 

c. The committee has at length brought in a report. C. S. 

d. The committee were divided in their opinions. C. S. 
Note I. — a. The court, after long delays, have passed 

sentence on the criminal. F. S. 

b. A herd of cattle peacefully grazing afford a pleasing 
sight. F. S. 

c. That assembly thus convened were numerous. F. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 167 
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

§120. EuLE XXVIII. — Transitive verbs 
govern the objective case; as, ^^God created 
the world j'' -^ We honor him^ 

Transitive verbs are sometimes called objective verbs, be- 
cause they require an object after them to complete their 
meaning. 

Intransitive verbs are sometimes called subjective verbs, 
because their meaning is complete in themselves without 
any complementary object. 

Note I. — Transitive verbs in some instances require a da- 
tive object in addition to the principal or accusative object ; 
as, *'I give the book to youj*^ Such verbs are Traditive, 
and are generally in English expressed by the preposition to 
or for. 

Note II. — Transitive verbs in some instances require a 
Factitive object in addition to the accusative object; as, 
*'They made Napoleon an emperor i'"* '*He thinks himself a 
gentleman ;" ** They crowned him a poet,''^ 

Note III. — Transitive verbs admit of a sentence, a clause, 
or a number of words as their object ; as, " He is not 
alarmed so far as to consider how much nearer he approaches 
his end ;^^ "Mark you his absolute shall f^ 

Note IV. — Some Transitive verbs govern two nouns in the 
objective case when in the active form, and one when in the 
passive; as, '*They asked him a question;^'' ''They taught 
him logic ;^^ ''They were asked a question."*^ See § 98. 

Note V. — Some Transitive verbs stand without their com- 
plementary objective case after them ; as, "He reads ;^^ "He 
writes f for "He reads books;'* "He writes letters.'* 

Note VI. — Transitive verbs are improperly used as In- 
transitive verbs; as, "I must premise with three circum- 
stances" for "I must premise three circumstances;'* "let 
us consider of the works of art" for "let us consider the 
works of art." 

Note VII. — Intransitive verbs are sometimes improperly 
used as Transitive verbs; as, "If Jove this arm succeed;'''' 
" He repented him of his design." 

Note VIII. — Certain intransitive verbs are followed by 
nouns kindred to them in origin or signification; as, "To 



168 SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 

sleep the sleep of death." Here the noun only repeats the 
idea expressed by the verb, and thus renders it emphatic. 
The Factitive relation is here indicated. 

Nearly allied to this idiom is that of using after verbs 
Transitive or Intransitive certain nouns which are not the 
objects of the verb, nor of precisely the same sense ; as, 
*' The lump of gold weighs two mmces ;" *' The cloth meas- 
ures three yards.^^ Some verbs of this sort are followed by 
two objects : '*The hat cost him five dollars.''^ 

Note IX. — There are some verbs which may be used 
Transitively or Intransitively; as, *'I shall do the busi- 
ness;" *' I shall c?o as I promised." 

The Objective after a verb in the active voice becomes the 
Nominative before the verb in the passive voice. The nom- 
inative before the verb in the active voice is joined to the 
passive verb by the preposition by: *' Caesar conquered Pom- 
pey at Pharsalia;" ^'-Pompey was conquered hy CcBsar at 
Pharsalia." 

Note X. — Idiomatic expressions sometimes occur, in which 
the active form of the transitive verb is used in a sense near- 
ly allied to the passive ; as, ''The goods sell rapidly ;" " the 
cloth tears ;^^ " the ground plows well." 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXVIII. 

GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Rule XXVIII. — a. The man who he raised from obscu- 
rity is dead. E. S. 

h. We never know the true value of friends. While they 
live we are too sensitive of their faults ; when we have lost 
them we only see their virtues. C. S. 

c. Few persons exert their ability to the utmost to do all 
the good that lies in their power. C. S. 

Note I. — With some paper, I gave him a pen. C. S. 

Note II. — And they endeavored to take him by force to 
make him a king. C. S. 

Note III.— If he escapes being banished by others, I fear 
he will banish himself. 

Note IV. — The king denied him admission to the court. 
C. S. 

Note V. — He writes frequently for Blackwood's Maga- 
zine. C. S. 

Note VI. — Those that think to ingratiate tvith him hj 
calumniating me, are mistaken. F. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 169 

Note VII. — a. I will submit me, for submission brings 
peace. C. S. 

h. This is true power ; it approaches men to God. F. S. 

c. His English partialities swerved him from the straight 
path of neutrality. F. S. 

Note VIII.— a. In his life he ran the race of godliness, 
and now he wears the crown of victory. C. S. 

h. A crown is a silver coin which weighs nineteen penny- 
weights. C. S. 

Note IX. — a. These victories in India swelled his fame. 
C. S. 

b. Provoked by the insult and the injury, he swelled v/ith 
rage. C. S. 

Note X. — a. These lines from Wordsworth read well. C. S. 

h. This apple is unripe, and is not fit to eat. C. S. 

THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 

§ 121. EuLE XXIX. — The verb am, and 
some others, admit after them a Predicate noun 
in the same case as the Subject; as, ^'Virtue 
alone is happiness ;" '"'' Hannibal was a famous 
Carthaginian general f ^^ Washington was cho- 
sen commander-in-chief f' ^'He was called the 
arch-magician f ^'He will turn out a villain^ 

*'I should go mad.''' — De Quince y. **He obliged the 
Nile to run blood for your sakes." The verbs to become^ to 
grow^ to remain^ to seem, to be chosen, to be named,to feel, as 
to feel strong, and many others, belong to this class. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXIX. 

THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 

Rule XXIX. — a. Reverence and tenderness are the hal- 
lowed avenues through which alone true souls can como to- 
gether. H. J. TUCKERMAN. C. S. 

b. He declared in the Senate that Catiline was a traitor. 
C. S. 

c. Knowledge is the parent of love ; wisdom love itself. 
C. S. 



170 SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 

d. She walks a goddess and she moves a queen. C. S. 

e. When knowledge was falsely called wisdom. C. S. 

/. The Swan on still St. Mary's lake # 

# i^.-«- /' '^■- Floats double, swan and shadow. C. S. / ^ 

THE SYNTAX O^ TE^' INFINITFf E MODE. 

§ 122. EuLE XXX.— A verb in the Infini- 
tive Mode depends upon a finite verb wMcli it 
follows ; as, ^^ Cease to do evil; learn to do well;" 
"His penetration and diligence seemed to vie 
with, each other." 

Note I. — Besides entering thus into construction in de- 
pendence upon another verb, the infinitive mode also some- 
times depends, a. On a Substantive; as, ^'He showed an 
eagerness to learn;" h. On an Adjective; as, "He was ea- 
ger to learn ;" c. On a Pronoun ; as, " Is it lawful for us to 
give tribute to Csesar?" d. On an Infinitive verb ; as, ''To 
make believe ;" e. On an Adverb; as, ''He knows not how 
to learn;" yi On a second Preposition; as, "And he stood 
up for to read;" g. On a Conjunction; as, "An object so 
high as to be inaccessible." 

Note II. — ^The Infinitive with its preposition expresses a 
coming event, an end, purpose, or cause ; as, " Christmas 
is to he celebrated next week;" " I read to learn i"* "I re- 
joice to hear it." 

Note III. — An Infinitive may be a subject, or predicate, 
or direct object ; as, "To die is gain;" "7b he virtuous is to 
he happy ;" "I dread to see him." It is remarkable that in 
these cases to is retained. 

Note IV. — The Infinitive is used to express necessity or 
obligation; as, "It is never to he forgotten;'''' "It is greatly 
to he deplored ;" "I had to pay it." 

Note V, — The Infinitive or the Substantive verb has the 
same case after it as before it ; as, " They supposed us to be 
them,'''' In Interrogative sentences, both of the cases some- 
times precede ; as, ''''Whom do you suppose him to be ?" 

Note VI. — Some verbs are immediately followed by an 
Infinitive when the Object is the same as the Subject, but 
are followed by the Accusative and the Infinitive when the 
object is different; as, "I wish to go ;" "I wish him to go." 



SYNTAX OF THE YEEB. 171 

Note VII.— Many verbs are never followed by the Infini- 
tive without the Accusative, except in the passive voice ; as, 
*'I advised him to do it;" but passively, "I am advised to 
do it." In this construction the accusative may be consid- 
ered as both the object of the finite verb and the subject of 
the infinitive mode. 

Note VIII. — An Infinitive, though it often comes last in 
the sentence, is seldom or never the Predicate, except when 
another infinitive is the subject; as, **To enjoy is to obey." 

Note IX. — The Infinitive is sometimes used absolutely; 
as, '"''To confess the truth, I was not present." 

Note X. — The Active form of the Infinitive is often used 
in a Passive sense ; as, "There is no time to waste ;" " John 
has a house to selV 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXX. 

THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

Rule XXX. — a. So far, peace seems to smile upon our 
future independence. C. S. 

h. The Norman, shut out from France, began more and 
more to feel that England was his home and his sphere. C. S. 

Note I. — a. Hast thou a charm to stay the morning star 
In his deep course ? C. S. 

h. In their conduct they are anxious to avoid even the 
appearance of evil. C. S. 

c. It would be wrong for them to desert the cause they 
have undertaken. C. S. 

d. To pretend to feel affection when none is felt is hypoc- 
risy. C. S. 

e. They told him where to spend the night. C. S. 
/. And what went ye out for to see ? C. S. 

g. Nothing makes a man more suspicious than to know 
little. C. S. 

Note II. — a. During the whole campaign he sought to 
fight. C. S. 

h. He studied to learn his duty. C . S. 

Note III. — a. To suffer is the destiny of man. C. S. 

h. To live is to be miserable. C. S. 

c. He loves to fight. C. S. 

Note IV. — a. The debt is to be paid. C. S. 

h. Sin is to be repented of. C. S. 

Note V. — a. When questioned, he declared them to bo 
soldiers. C. S. 



172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

h. In their statements, whom do they represent me to be? 
C. S, 

Note YI. — a. I desire to learn the science of astronomy. 
C. S. 

h. I desire him to learn the science of astronomy. C. S. 

Note YII. — They urged him to declare war. He was 
urged to declare war. C. S. 

Note YIII. — Remember that to be humble is to be wise. 
C. S. 

Note IX. — a. To say nothing of his ignorance, he is a 
bad man. C. S. 

b. It is not once in ten attempts that you can find the case 
you seek in any law-book, to say nothing of those numerous 
points of conduct concerning which the law professes not to 
prescribe. C. S. 

Note X. — In that affair he is to blame. C. S. 

THE INFINITIYE MODE. 

§ 123. EuLE XXXI.— The Yerbs Bid, feel, 
dare, do, have, hear, let, make, need, see, may, can, 
will, shall, must, are followed by the InfinitiYe, 
without the preposition to; as, ''I hid her 
alight f *'I make him go f *^I feel the pain 
abate f ^^I saw him fallf ^^ We heard him sayf' 
*'He let me go f ^* I dare go f ^^ I need not go;^^ 
*' I do go ;" ^^ Would they haYe us go V ^^ I may 
go;'' "I can go;'' ''1 will go;" ''1 shall go;" 
" I must go" Some other Yerbs are sometimes 
in the same construction ; as, Ohsei-ve, perceive, 
know, help. The to is seldom or ncYcr omitted 
after the perfect participle used passiYcly ; as, 
"We are bidden to rest;" "he was seen to 
moYe." To this let forms an exception. 

Note I. — Bid, in the sense of command, usually is fol- 
lowed by an object and the infinitive without the preposition 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 173 

to ; as, **Lord, if it be thou, bid me come to tliee on the wa- 
ter." In the sense of promise, it is followed b}^ an infini- 
tive with the preposition ; as, '^ He bids fair to make an able 
statesman." 

Note II. — Dare, used Intransitively, is followed by an in- 
finitive without the preposition ; as, "I dare do all that may 
become a man." Dare, Transitive, is followed by the prep- 
osition to ; as, "I dare you to do it," 

Note III. — Feel, used Intransitively, is followed by an 
object and the infinitive v/ithout the preposition ; as, ^' I feel 
it wove." When used Intransitively, the infinitive has the 
preposition; as, *'I felt afraid to speak." 

Note IV. — Need, when Transitive, is regular in its inflec- 
tions ; but when Intransitive, it drops the personal termina- 
tions in the present tense, is formed like the auxiliaries, and 
followed by the verb without the prefix to ; as, *' He need not 
(70 any farther;" ''She need dig no more." — Spectator, No. 
'121. ''He need not urge this honorable court." To this 
there are exceptions ; as, 

'*• Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
Tiiat to be hated needs but to be seen." — Pope. 

Note V. — Make, in the language of Scripture, is followed 
by to ; as, " He maketh his sun to riseJ'^ Sometimes the verb 
he is introduced after the verb 7wa7ce, while the preposition 
to is suppressed ; as, ' ' He is careful to make every word he 
heard." 

Note VI. — Have, signifying possession or obligation, is 
generally followed by to ; as, "I had to do this." When it 
implies Abolition, to is generally omitted; as, "Would you 
have us reject such an offer?" And yet we find, "Him 
would Paul have to go forth with him." See § 69. The 
Infinitive present standing after have, in some cases express- 
es a duty, or task, or necessity ; as, "I have to work for my 
bread." 

When an infinitive clause foUow^s a transitive verb, the 
pronoun it is often placed immediately after the verb, and 
the infinitive placed in apposition to it; as, "I found it to 
no purpose to lay much stress on those texts that are usually 
alleged on the occasion.''' 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXXI. 

Rule XXXL, Note I. — a. After the fatigues of the day, 
night bids us rest. C. S. 



474 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

b. He bids fair to be an eminent scholar. C. S. 
Note II. — a. They dared do all their duty. C. S. 
h. At that meeting he dared them to fight. C. S. 
Note III.— a. I felt the pulse beat. C. S. 

h. I felt afraid to stir. C. S. 

Note IV. — a. They need but to see the work in order ta 
be satisfied. C. S. 

h. He need not beg, for he is able to work. C. S. 

Note V. — He maketh me to lie down in green pastures 
C.S. 

Note VI. — a. He has to study half of the night to get hi| 
lesson. C. S. 

h. They would have us refuse the invitation which liaj 
been so courteously given. C. S. 

THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 

§ 124. Forms in the Imperative Mode have 
in EngHsh three peculiarities : 

1. They have a simple form for the second 
person; as, ''Love thou;" the third being ex- 
pressed by a circumlocution; as, ''Let him 
love." 2. They take pronouns after instead of 
before them; as, in the example given, "Love 
thou." 3. They often omit the pronoun alto* 
gether; as, "Love." 

EXERCISES UNDER § 124. 
THE IMPERATIVE MODE. 
a. Attend, thou son of earth, to my instructions. C. S. 
h. But, in order to understand the subject, let us turn the 
tables on the objector. C. S. 

c. Read, but do not devour books. Compare your in- 
formation ; digest it. In short, according to the proverb, 
'*Make haste slowly." — John Randolph. C. S. 

d. Live with your century, but be not its creature ; bestow 
upon your contemporaries not what they praise, bat what 
they need. C. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 175 

€. Let them laugh who win. C. S. 

f. liouse not, I beseech yon, a peace-loving, but a reso- 
lute people ; alienate not from your body the affections of a 
whole empire. C. S. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

§ 125. EuLE XXXII. — In conditional ex- 
pressions, which imply both doubt and futuri- 
ty, the Subjunctive Mode generally follows the 
conjunction which expresses the condition ; as, 
^''If thy brother trespass against thee, rebuke 
him ; and, if he repent^ forgive him ;" ^* Though 
he luere dead, yet shall he live again." , 

Note I. — The sign of the condition is sometimes omitted ; 
as, ^'Were he to read hard for the next six months, he 
would probably be admitted to the bar." 

It must be remembered, however, that conjunctions like 
those quoted above do not govern the Subjunctive Mode be- 
cause they are conditional, but because, in the particular 
condition which they accompany, there is an element of un-* 
certainty. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXXII. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Rule XXXII. — a. With whom, if he come shortly, I will 
see you. C. S. 

h. Except I be by Silvia in the night, there is no music in 
the nightingale. C. S. 

c. Revenge back on itself recoils ; 

Let it ; I reck not, so it light well aimed. C. S. 

d. They deck it with silver and gold ; they fasten it with 
nails and hammers, that it move not. C. S. 

e. If this be law (which it is for you this day to decide), 
such a man has no trial. C. S. 

Note I. — a. Were he to confess his fault, he would be for- 
given. C. S. 

h. Were he ten times the villain that he is, he would stilj 
find supporters. C. S. 



176 SYNTAX OF THE VEKB. 

c. Were death denied, poor man would live in vain; 
Were death denied, to him would not he life ; 
Were death denied, even fools would wish to die. — YouifO. 

SYKTAX OF TENSES. 

§ 126. To express the different relations of Time, the ap- 
propriate tenses of the verb should be carefully employed. 
See § 55. 

1. The Past improperly used for the Present Tense r** A 
stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was 
(is) verse;" ''He announced to the world that air was (is) 
elastic." 

2. The Present Perfect improperly used for the Past: 
*'The Lord hath given (gave) and the Lord hath taken 
away;" "I have seen (saw) the coronation at Westminster 
last summer." 

3. The Present improperly used for the Present Perfect : 
*'They continue (have continued) with me three days." 

4. The Past improperly used for the Past Perfect : "They 
arrived (had arrived) before we reached the city." 

5. The Future improperly used for the Future Perfect: 
*'The workmen will Jinlsh (will have finished) the business 
at midsummer." 

6. The Present Perfect improperly used for the Present : 
"All the present family have been (are) much indebted to 
their great and honorable ancestor." 

7. The Past imj)roperly used for the Present Perfect : 
" This curious piece of workmanship luas preserved and shown 
(has been preserved and shown) to strangers for more than 
fifty years." 

8. The auxiliary should is improperly used for would ; as, 
' ' On the morrow, because he should have known (would know) 
the certainty wherefore he was accused of the Jews." 

9. The Indicative Present is correctly used after the 
words when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the rel- 
ative time of a Future action; as, '''V/hen the mail arrives 
he will come." 

10. The Infinitive Present Perfect is incorrectly used for 
the Present; as, "The last work I intended to have written 
(to Torite).''^ 

11. When a verb in the Present Perfect tense is preceded 
by when, as soon as, before, till, or after, it performs the of- 
fice of the Fiiturc Perfect ; as, '-''Before he has been there, I 
shall arrive." 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 177 

"Thers is something peculiar in the use of the Preterit 
tense. Take the following case : A servant calls on me for 
a book ; if I am uncertain whether I have it or not, I an- 
swer, ' If the book he in my library, or if I have the book, 
your master is welcome to it ; ' but if I am certain that I 
have not the book, I say, ' If the book were in my library, 
or if I had the book, it should be at your master's service.' 
Here it is obvious that when we use the Present tense it im- 
plies uncertainty of the fact, and when we use the Preterit 
it implies a negation of its existence. Thus, also, a person 
at night would say to his friend, ' If it rain you shall not 
go,' being uncertain at the time whether it did or did not 
rain ; but if, on looking out, he perceived it did not rain, he 
would then say, *If it i^ained you should not go,' intimating 
that it did not rain." — ^Webster's Dissertations, p. 263. 

EXERCISES UNDER § 126. 
THE TENSES. 

1. a. If my readers will turn their thoughts back on their 
old friends, they will find it difficult to call a single man to 
remembrance who appeared to know that life was short till 
he was about to lose it. F. S. 

b. A cursory perusal would not enable you to discover 
that this was a poem. F. S. 

2. I assure you I have seen the king last summer. F. S. 

3. I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 
tinue with me three days. F. S. 

4. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. F. S. 

5. John will earn his wages when his service is com- 
pleted. F. S. 

6. I have now been writing to my friend whom I wish to 
see. F. S. 

7. This relic was carefully preserved these ten years. 
F. S. 

8. Because he should have known the reason of his con- 
demnation, he made the inquiry. F. S. 

9. I shall wait in New York until my friend comes. C. S. 

10. a. I intended last year to have visited you. F. S. 
b. I expected to have plowed my land last week. F. S. 

11. As soon as he comes I will invite him home. C. S. 

M 



178 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
SYNTAX OF PARTICIPLES. 

§ 127. EuLE XXXIII.— Participles belong 
to substantives; as, ^'j0e, watching the coming 
storm, prepared to meet it;" ''The risen sun 
has scattered the collected clouds;" ^''Having 
slept during the night, the traveler went on his 
way." When used in this way, the participle 
is an adjective, expressing an attribute, though 
it differs from the adjective in expressing time. 

Like adjectives, participles belong to sen- 
tences and parts of sentences. A participle 
with the prefix un often becomes an adjective; 
as, unbidden. If the verb also has the prefix, 
the participle retains the quality of a verb, in- 
stead of becoming an adjective ; as, unfolding^ 
from unfold. Many words originally partici- 
ples have in use become adjectives; as, ^'Writ- 
ing paper ;" " looking glass." 

Note I. — The Present and the Compound participles of 
Transitive verbs in the active voice govern the objective 
case; as, "He was striking him ;^^ '•''Having struck him, he 
proceeded to other acts of violence." In cases like these, 
the participle performs one of the offices of the verb, as well 
as that of an adjective. 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXXIII. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Rule XXXIII. — a. He, loving his work, performed it 
successfully. C. S. 

b. Loved and admired by his friends, he fell a sacrifice to 
inordinate ambition. C. S. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 179 

c. Having lost his health, he was obliged to relinquish his 
profession. C. S. 

d. Rasing, like Shakspeare's pirate, the eighth command- 
ment from the Decalogue, the minstrels praised their chief- 
tains for the veiy exploits against which the laws of the 
countiy denounced a capital doom. — Walter Scott. C. S. 

Note I. — a. Esteeming themselves wise, they become 
fools. C. S. 

h. After defeating his army, he took possession of the 
kingdom. C. S. 

c. Having studied law at Litchfield, he devoted himself 
to his profession in his native state. C. S. 



PARTICIPLES. 

§ 128. EuLE XXXIV.— The Present and 
the Compound Participles of Transitive and of 
Intransitive verbs, like nouns, are put in tlie 
Nominative case, or in the Objective case, or 
govern the Possessive case ; as, *' The reading 
of the report occupied an hour;" ^''Writing re- 
quires more effort than talking;" ^'Its excesses 
may be restrained without destroying its exist- 
ence;" ^'He was displeased with the king's 
having disposed of the office, or with his having 
bestowed it upon an unworthy man;" ^'This 
did not prevent John's being acknowledged and 
solemnly inaugurated Duke of Normandy." 

When the present participle is preceded by 
a or the^ it always takes the character of a 
Noun, and is generally followed by the prep- 
osition of; as, " We are expecting a rising of 
the people;" *'The middle station of life seems 



180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 

to be advantageously situated for the gaining of 
wisdom." 

Without tlie article preceding it, this parti- 
ciple becomes a noun in certain constructions ; 
as, " Rising early is healthy ;" ^' This is the ad- 
vantage of early rising^ 

The forms hy sending ihem^ hy the sending of 
tliem^ are preferable to the forms hy sending of 
ihem^ hy the sending them; though these latter 
are frequently met with in the language. 

The form What do you think of ray horse! s run- 
ning to-day^ is a correct form of expression, 
rather than the form What do you think of my 
horse running to-day .^ 

Note I. — The present participles of Transitive verbs are 
not unfrequently used in the Passive sense; as, "The na- 
tion had cried out loudly against the crime while it was 
committing.'''^ — Bolingbroke on History^ Letter 8. *'My 
Lives are reprinting.^'' — Dr. Johnson. ''The house is huHd- 
ing:' 

If we use the phrase " the house is huilding,^'' we speak of 
it as a thing, from its very nature, not acting itself, and we 
use the term building as expressive of a passive progressive 
condition of the house. If we say the "wew a?'e building,^^ 
we then have active instruments, and the term building is an 
active participle, requiring to be followed by a noun ; as, 
"Building a wall, a castle." 

Expressions like the following have for some years been 
stealing into the language: "While the house was being 
burned j''^ instead of " while the house was burning ;" "while 
the battle was being fought," instead of "while the battle 
was fought." Some expressions like these are awkward, 
and difficult to be dealt with. Is it not better to say, "He 
will find the house will be building^'''' than to say, "He will 
find the house will be being built ?'^ Is it not better to say, 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 18V 

"I knev/ the house to he huildlng,'''' than to say, "I knew 
the house to he heing huilt f " 

These expressions are not yet sanctioned by the highest 
authority. On the other hand, the best writers of the pres- 
ent time use expressions like *'is making," "is doing," in- 
stead of "is being made," "is being done." The analo- 
gous use of verbs in the active form with a passive meaning 
we have in the following expressions : ' ' The verses you sent 
me read welli'' "you will easily find a house to Uty See 
§ 120. 

Note II. — A participle is sometimes used absolutely^ with- 
out any noun, pronoun, or sentence on which it depends ; 
as, "It is not possible to act otherwise, considering the weak- 
ness of our nature;" " Generally speaking, the heir at law 
is not bound by the will of the testator." 

Note III. — The Past participle and the Preterit are some- 
times indiscriminately used : Thus, hegun is improperly used 
for the preterit began^ and the preterit spoke is improperly 
used for the past participle spoken, 

EXERCISES UNDER RULE XXXIV. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Rule XXXIV. — a. Ambition often puts men upon doing 
the meanest offices : so climbing is performed in the same 
posture as creeping. — Swift. C. S. 

b. The enjoying of the goods of fortune is more coveted 
than the winning of them. C. S. 

c. The public were dissatisfied with the President for hav- 
ing bestowed offices upon mere party grounds. C. S. 

d. The period of Napoleon's leading an army into Italy 
has already been described. C. S. 

e. The stoical scheme of supplying our wants by lopping 
oif our desires, is like cutting off our feet when we want 
shoes. C. S. 

Note I. — a. When in New York, I saw Trinity Church 
while it was building. C. S. 

6. In three months from this date the City Hall will be 
being built. F. S. 

c. The house has been being built for nine months. F. S. 

Note II. — a. The articles of this charge, considering by 
whom it was brought, were not of so high a nature as was 
to be expected. C. S. 

h. Speaking generally of that generation of authors, it 



182 SYNTAX OF THE VEEB. 

may be said that, as poets, they had no force or greatness 
of fancy, no pathos, no enthusiasm ; and as philosophers, no 
comprehensiveness, depth, or originality. — Lord Jeffrey. 
C. S. 

Note m. — a. From liberty each noble science sprung, 

A Bacon brightened and a Spenser sung. F. S. 

b. Philosophers have often mistook the true source of hap- 
piness. F. S. 

CERTAIN USES OF THE VERB. 

§ 120. 1. He IS DRINKING, indicates a Present action; he 
drinks, may indicate a habit. He drinks wine at dinner, 
means that he does so habitually ; he is drinking wine at din- 
ner, confines the act to a particular occasion. 

2. DoEST is a form which occurs when the verb is used 
as a principal; dost, when it is used as an auxiliary: 
'^ Which doest great things past finding out;" ''He loves 
not plays as thou dost.^'' 

3. Don't is a contraction of do not, and not of does not. 
DonH for does not is a vulgarism. Contractions like haven't 
=have not; isnH—is not, should not be encouraged. 

4. Doth and hath, in the place of does aud has are some- 
times used to express solemn and tender associations, or to 
avoid the too frequent repetition of the letter s, 

5. I WOULD RATHER and / had rather are both in use. 
The first is preferable, of which /'c? rather is an abbreviation. 

6. Shall and will are sometimes improperly used the 
one for the other, as, in the case of the drowning Irishman, 
''I will be drowned, and nobody shall help me." 

7. Might is used for may, to express a wish without def- 
inite hope of obtaining it : "The blind man said unto him, 
Lord, \h2Li\7night receive my sight," i. e., if it were possible. 

8. The Third person is improperly used for the Second : 

'^ Thou great First Cause, least understood, 

Who all my sense confined 
To know but this, that thou art good, 

And that myself am blind ; 
Yet gave me, in this dark estate, 

To see the good from ill ; 
And, binding nature fast in fate, 

Left free the human will." 

9. Had is, in some instances, improperly omitted: *'No 
respite was given ; but whenever the operation ceased, the 
^hole table was covered and appeared perfectly black, as if 
60 much soot thrown upon it." It should be had been thrown. 



SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 183 

10. The form of the Third Person of the verb should 
not be changed in the same sentence: **It is for their sake 
that human law hath interposed in some countries of the 
world, and, by creating and ordaining a right for them, has 
endeavored to make good the deficiency of nature." 

11. "Its tufted flowers and leafy bands 

In one continuous curve expands^ 
When herb or floweret rarely smile.'^ 

The wrong number of the verb is here used. 

12. "They deck it with silver and with gold, that it move 
not." Here an end is proposed, and the subjunctive i^ the 
proper form. 

13. *' Men do not despise a thief if he steal to satisfy his 
soul when he is hungry." Here an individual fact is indi- 
cated, and not a confirmed habit. The subjunctive is there- 
fore used. 

14. "For these mid hours, till evening rise^ 

I have at will." 

Rise, not iises, is used, because a future event is indicated. 

15. *' If any of my readers has looked with so little atten- 
tion upon the world around him." Certainty is here im- 
plied. The indicative mode is therefore used. 

16. *'If the leg does not come off, take the turkey to 
yourself." '* Madam," replied the man in black, ''I don't 
care a farthing whether the leg or the wing comes off." It 
should be do and come; for the parties are disputing upon 
the result of the lady's carving, and not upon the actual state 
of the turkey. 

17. *'To BE sure" — ^'cer^a/w/^^," '^indeed;" as, **Will 
you venture out in this snow-storm ?" ''''To he sure I will." 

18. Would is often used to express a wish; as, ''''I would 
there were a sword in my hand ;" '' / would to God that you 
did reign;" "Ye would none of my reproof." 

19. Were is used for would he ; as, 

" That were low indeed ! 
That were an ignominy and shame beneath 
This downfall." — Milton, P. /y., i, 114. 

20. Had is often used ^ov would have ; as, *'Had he done 
this he had escaped" = he tt^ow/o? have escaped. 

21. In familiar language, ^(;^7/ represents the Present tense 
of the principal verb, and would the Past : 

" The isle is full of noises. 
Sometimes a thousand twanging instruments 
Will hum about my ears." — Shakspearb. 
''His listless length at noontide would he stretch."— Gbat. 



184 SYNTAX OF THE ADVERT^. 

22. *'This dedication will serve for almost any book that 
has, is, or shall be published." It ought to be '^that has 
been or shall be published." 

23. ''The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates and 
breaks the teeth of the common law." It would be better 
to say, ' ' mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth 
of it." 

24. "Then said they unto him, what shall we do that we 
might work the works of God." Might is improperly put for 
may. 

25. "If these persons had intended to deceive, they would 
have taken care to have avoided what would expose them to 
the objections of their opponents." The second Aaue should 
be omitted, and avoid be used instead of avoided. 

2Q. ' ' For they feared the people lest they should have been 
stoned." [Should be.] • 

27. "Let us suppose a man convinced, notwithstanding 
the disorders of the world, that it was under the direction 
of an infinitely perfect being." Was is improperly used 
for is. 



CHAPTBE VI. 

SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 

§130. EuLE XXXY. — Adyekbs modify 
Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs ; as, ^^He 
acted judiciously ;^^ ^'He is a truly good man;" 
'^ He was most kindly treated." 

An Adverb, in some cases, modifies a whole 
Sentence, or a Noun, or a Preposition; as, 
^^Unfortunately for the lovers of antiquity, 7io 
remains of Orecian paintings have been pre- 
served f ^^ Blessed be God, even the Father;" 
'•''Just helow the surface." 

Note I. — Adverbs are sometimes used as Adjectives ; as, 
*' Will you have the goodness to look over the above state- 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 185 

ment ;" ^' Call to mind that the then secretary had just come 
into office." Forms like these are not to be encouraged, 
though they are sometimes convenient. 

Note II. — Adverbs are sometimes used as Nouns ; as, 
''He traveled from thence by land ;" "There are upward of 
two thousand people present;" "Since when''' —smo^Q which 
time; "Worth their z^Ai7e"= worth their time and pains ; 
''''Now is the time" =the present is the time. 

Note III. — Certain Adjectives are used as Adverbs ; as, 
''''Full well he knows the folly of his course." A question 
may even arise whether a word is an adverb or an adjective : 
"After life's fitful fever he sleeps icell;^^ after life's fitful 
fever he is well. Is ivell the same part of speech in these 
two cases ? Most grammarians would say wo, some would 
say yes, and correctly. It makes a part of the predicate. 
See §364. 

The termination ly was originally adjectival. At present 
it is a derivational syllable, by which we convert an adjec- 
tive into an adverb. When, however, the adjective ends in 
ly, the formation is awkward. / eat my daily bread, is unex- 
ceptionable. "I eat my bread dailily,^^ is exceptionable. 
One of two things must here take place : the two syllables 
lily are packed into one, or else the construction is that of 
an adjective deflected. Thus, godly is used as an adverb 
instead of godlily. — Latham. 

Note IV. — Certain Adverbs perform also the office of 
Conjunctions; as, "Come when you can;" "Tell me why 
you wish it." They introduce a clause having the relation 
of an adverb to the preceding clause. 

Note V. — AdverbsofKESTiNAPLACE, namely^ here, there, 
and where, are often used instead of adverbs of motion to- 
ward a place, namely, hither, thither, whither, when the latter 
would be more strictly accurate; as, "He came here," in- 
stead of "he came hither." In dignified language and in 
poetry this substitution is not so frequent. 

Note VI. — Before adverbs of motion from a place, name- 
ly, hence, thence, whence, the preposition from is often used. 
But its use is pleonastic, because, hence, thence, whence are 
equivalent to ' ' from this place ; " " from that place ; " " from 
which place." 

Note VII. — As to the use of the adverbs never and ever, 
when followed by so, authorities are divided, some being in 
favor of the first, as in the scriptural expression, "charm 
he n^ver so wisely," on the ground that it is more express- 



186 SYNTAX OF THE ADVEEB. 

ive ; and some being infavor of substituting for it the ex- 
pression *' charm he ever so wisely." Usage, at least ancient 
usage, justifies the scriptural expression. Grammarians, at 
least many of them, prefer the other form, and to this mod- 
ern usage inclines, though without any strong reason in its 
favor. Either form is correct. 

Note VIII. — Here, there, and where, formerly denot- 
ing place, have now a more extensive application corre- 
sponding with their pronominal derivation, here having the 
force of this or these ; there the force of that or those ; and 
where the force of at ivhich or in which; as, '* It is not so 
with respect to volitions and actions ; here the coalescence is 
intimate ;" "I will visit my friends; there I shall find com- 
fort;" "Tell me the place where it happened." 

The adverb there may be used when we wish fTie nom- 
inative case to stand after its verb: '''There followed Him 
great multitudes.^'' 

Note IX. — The adverbs yes, yea, ay, no, nay, are used 
independently; as, "Will he consent?" "Yes." "Will 
he go?" "iVb." These words are each of them equiva- 
lent to a whole sentence. The word amen is also used in- 
dependently." 

Yea and nay are also used in another sense ; as, "A good 
man always profits by his endeavors ; yea^ when he is ab- 
sent ; ««?/, when dead, by his example and memory." Here 
yea is nearly equivalent to this ; so is nay. 

Note X. — Two Negatives in English are equivalent to an 
Affirmative; as, "Nor did he not perceive them"=he did 
perceive them; "His manners are not inelegant" = are ele- 
gant. When two negatives, as in the last example, are used 
to express an affirmative, they denote the quality only in a 
moderate degree. 

In popular language, two negatives are frequently used 
for a negation, according to the practice of the ancient 
Greeks and the modern French. 

Note XI. — No is sometimes improperly used for not ; as, 
* * ' Whether love be natural or wo, ' replied my friend, grave- 
ly, ' it contributes to the happiness of every society into which 
it is introduced.' " No properly never qualifies a verb. 

Adverbial phrases are treated generally in the same man- 
ner as adverbs ; as, " The many letters I receive do not a 
little encourage me." Here A little modifies the verb en- 
courage. 

In Imperative sentences the verb is sometimes suppressed, 



SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. 187 

and its indicated by an adverb which ssems to supply its 
place; as, '^-'Down with him!' cried false Sextus, with a 
smile on his pale face." See § 116. 

CORRESPONDENT ADVERBS. 

§ 131. Yea — nay ; '* Did he say yea or nay f " 
Not only — but also; *'He was not only kind, hut also 
courteous." 

Now — NOW ; "• Like leaves on trees the race of man is found : 

Aoiv green in youth, now withering on the ground." 

Where— THERE ; ^^ Where you dwell, there will I dwell." 
When — then; ^^ When pride cometh, then cometh 
shame." 

There— HERE : ''In glittering pomp appear : 

There hold Automedon, Patroclus here.'''' 

EXERCISES IN THE SYNTAX OF ADVERBS. 

Rule XXXV. — a. Despair naturally produces indolence. 
C. S. 

fc. A perfect woman, nobly planned 

To warn, to comfort, and command. — Wordsworth. C. S. 

c. So well-educated a boy naturally gives great hopes to 
his friends. C. S. 

Note I. — a. Use a little wine for thine often infirmities. 
F. S. 

h» We should implant in the minds of youth such seeds 
and principles of piety and virtue as are likely to take soon- 
est and deepest root. C. S. 

Note II.— a. For why the good old rule 

Sufficeth them, the simple plan, 
That they should take who have the power. 
And they should keep who can. — Wordsworth. C. S. 

h. He went to where the accident was committed. C. S. 

e. But an eternal now does ever last Cowley. C. S. 

In this example, ever last is tautological. 

Note III. — a. In a word, his speech was all excellent 
good in itself. F. S. 

h. He came agreeable to his promise, and conducted him- 
self suitable to the occasion. F. S. 

Note IV.— rt. Wait till I go. C. S. 

b. Tell me where it happened. C. S. 

c. Work while you are strong. C. S. 



188 SYNTAX OF THE PKEPOSITION. 

Note V. — a. Come here to me if you will not go there to 
him. C. S. 

5. Come hither, come hither, by night and by day 

We linger in pleasures that never are gone. C. S. 

Note VI. — a. He arrived at Liverpool, and from thence 
he went to London. C. S. 

h. He arrived at Liverpool, and thence he went to Lon- 
don. C. S. 

Note VII. — a. The Lord is King, be the people never so 
impotent. C. S. 

5. Ask me never so much dowry. C. S. 

c. If the opportunities of some persons were ever so favor- 
able, they are too idle to improve them. C. S. 

Note VIII. — a. The Scriptures are a revelation from God; 
here we find the truths we need to know. C. S. 

6. His follies had reduced him to a situation where he 
has every thing to fear and nothing to hope. C. S. Instead 
of where, many grammarians would say in which. 

c. Where the heart has laid down what it most loved, it 
is desirous of laying itself down. C. S. Where, in this 
case, is used like what, and contains in itself the antecedent. 

Note IX. — ^Will he, upon examination, confess the truth? 
No. C. S. 

Note X. — a, I can not by no means admit it to be true. 
F. S. 

h. Nobody can never say that none of our family was 
never guilty of no dishonestness. F. S. 

Note XL — If that be all, there is no need of paying for 
it, since I am resolved to have that pleasure, whether I am 
there or no. F, S. 



CHAPTER YII. 

SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 

§ 132. Rule XXXVI. — Prepositions gov- 
ern the objective case, and show its relation to 
some other word ; as, ^' They went out from us, 
because they were not ofusf^ ^'-From him that 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 189 

is needy turn not away;" *'The face o/* Ea- 
phael's mother blends with the angelic beauty 
of all his Madonnas." 

Prepositions sometimes govern sentences; 
as, '' But before I can venture to lay it before 
you, it is proper to call your attention to how 
matters stood at the time of its publication.^'' — 
Erskine in hehaJf of Stockdale. 

Note I. — A preposition should be placed as near as possi- 
ble to each of the words whose relation it expresses : ''The 
ignorance of the age in mechanical arts rendered the prog- 
ress very slow of the new invention." It should be, "the 
progress of the new invention very slow." 

Note II. — The preposition is sometimes separated from 
its noun, in order to connect different prepositions with the 
same noun; as, "To suppose the zodiac and the planets to 
be efficient of and antecedent to themselves." This form, 
though inelegant, is often convenient, especially in forms of 
law, where exactness and fullness must take place of every 
other consideration. 

Note III. — The preposition is sometimes separated from 
the word which it governs; as, "Milton is an author whom 
I am much delighted with.''^ The form of expression is in 
some cases idiomatic and expressive, though a violation of 
a general rule. 

Note IV. — Prepositions are sometimes understood; as, 
*'He gave me a book;" "Get me some paper"— He gave 
to me a book ; Get for me some paper. The prepositions 
IN, ON, FOR, and from are understood before nouns of time 
and place ; as, " This day," " next month," are used ellip- 
tically for "o7^ this day," "^w this month." For a some- 
what different view of such sentences, see § 98. 

Note V. — The word to which the preposition refers is oft- 
en omitted, especially before an Infinitive; as, "He is a 
person not fit to converse with ;" "A bitter persecution was 
carried on." It is then an adverb. 

In those instances in which the preposition is treated as 
an adverb, there is often a noun understood; as, "The 
heavens above;''' "the earth beneath.''^ 



190 SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 

Note VI. — Prepositions are in some cases used for nouns ; 
as, "The ins are fewer than the outs.'" 

Note VII. — The prepositions ur, on, over, by, etc., are 
often subjoined to verbs, so that the verb and preposition 
can be regarded as a compound word; as, ^' To get up,'" 
Some of these compounds are idiomatic ; as, ^^To get up" — 
to rise ; to go ow =to proceed ; ' ' The man spoken to ;" " The 
subject talked of." 

Note VIII. — Grammarians are not agreed as to the syn- 
tax of near and nigh^ like and unlike^ save and except, hut and 
than, and some others. In the phrases '-'-near him," ''nigh 
him," some regard near and nigh as performing the office of 
prepositions, while others consider the preposition to as un- 
derstood. In the phrases ''except them" and "save them," 
some consider except and save as prepositions, while others 
regard them as verbs in the Imperative. They were origin- 
ally verbal. The words saving, barring, during, touching, 
concurring, relating to, originally participles, perform the 
functions of prepositions. Thus we see that words which 
were adjectives, verbs, or participles, become prepositional 
in their character. 

Note IX. — The preposition to is made use of before nouns 
of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion ; 
as, "I went to London ;" but the preposition at is generally 
used after the verb to he; as, "I have been at Amherst." 
The preposition in is set before the names of cou7itries, cities, 
and large towns ; as, " He lives in France." In the Devon- 
shire dialect, "He lives to Exmouth" is used instead of 
"at Exmouth." 

Note X. — Two prepositions in some cases come together; 
as, "From under the ship;" under governs ship ; from, the 
phrase under the ship. 

tt FroTYi "before the lustre of her face, 
White hreak the clouds away." 

Note XI. — Prepositions are elliptically construed with cer- 
tain adjectives; as, "In vain;" "in secret;" and also with 
certain adverbs ; as, "Atonce.^^ These are called adverbial 
phrases. 

Note XII. — In some cases the preposition is advantageous- 
ly repeated ; as, "In journeyings often, in perils of waters, 
in perils of robbers, in perils of mine own countrymen, in 
perils by the heathen, in perils in the city, in perils on the 
sea, in perils among false brethren, in weariness and pain- 
fulness, in watchings often, in hunger and thirst, in cold and 
nakedness." 



SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 191 

Note XIII. — It is a general rule that Greek, Latin, and 
French derivatives are followed by a preposition correspond- 
ing vrith that which is in composition ; as, ' ' To sympathize 
with ;" " to expel from ;" '•'• to adapt to.''' To this rule there 
are many exceptions ; as, ''We submit to ;" "we prefer to ;" 
''aversion ^o," not aversion y*ro??i. 

Note XIV. — The following examples of the improper use 
of prepositions, with corrections, are from Murray's Gram- 
mar., p. 189 : 

"He was resolved of going to the Persian court;" "ow 
going," etc. 

"He found the greatest difficulty of writing;" "iw wri- 
ting," etc. 

"The English were a very different people then to what 
they are now;" '''-from what," etc. 

"It is more than they thought for;" "thought o/*." 

" The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts ;" 
"agreeable to," etc. 

" He was made much on at Argos ;" "much o/*," etc. 

" Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the path;" 
"/?-om the path." 

"In compliance to (with) your request." 

"The rain has been falling for a long time;" "falling a 
long time." 

"He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citi- 
zens;" "m recommending," etc. 

"You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving 
persons ;" '•'-upon the most deserving persons." 

" If policy can prevail upon force ;" '-'•over force." 

"The variety of factions into which we are still en- 
gaged;" "m which." 

"The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to 
their greatness or derogation to their sufficiency to rely 
upon counsel;" " diminution q/*" and "derogation from.''^ 

"A strict observance after times and fashions;" "q/* 
times." 

"Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat and swallow a 
camel ;" "which strain out a gnat." 

" Intrusted to persons on whom the Parliament could con- 
fide;" "i?2 whom." 



192 SYNTAX OF THE PREPOSITION. 



EXERCISES IN THE SYNTAX OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule XXXVI. — a. He came from Switzerland, through 
France, over to England, and staid some months among us. 
C. S. 

h. Between you and I, there is much mischief in that 
plan. F. S. 

c. Does that boy know who he speaks to? Who does he 
offer such language to ? F. S. 

d. He had not long enjoyed repose before he began to be 
weary of having nothing to do. C. S. 

Note I. — The success was very great of that enterprise. 
F. S. 

Note II. — 05. He was related to, and governed by, the same 
person. F. S. 

h. He was refused admission into and forcibly driven from 
his home. F. S. 

Note III. — The man whom I bought that horse of is not 
honest. 

Note IV. — a. When at the store will you get me some 
paper? C. S. 

h, I shall be in Boston next month. C. S. 

Note V. — a. This pen which I have just bought is not fit 
to write wdth. C. S. 

h. When we look around we see abundant proofs of the 
goodness of God. C. S. 

Note VI. — There are ultras on both sides. C. S. Ultra 
is a Latin preposition. 

Note VII. — a. After waiting a long time we gave over 
looking for them. C. S. 

b. This doctrine is every where spoken against. C. S. 

c. Religion was scoffed at. C. S. 

Note VIII. Like the dew on the mountain, 

Like the foam on the river, 
Like the hubhle on the fountain, 
Thou art gone, and forever. — Scott. C. S. 

Note IX. — In his journey he went to New York, but is 
now in Philadelphia. C. S. 

Note X. With noise like the sound of distant thunder, 

Koaring, they rushed from the black clouds under. C. S. 

Note XI. — In vain ; in earnest ; in secret ; in public. C. S. 

Note XII. — In their dress, their table, their houses, their 
furniture, the favorites of fashion united every refinement of 
convenience, q/ elegance, and 0/ splendor. C. S. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUKCTIOI^S. 193 

Note XIII.— To comply with; to adapt to; to compare 
with. C. S. 

Note XIV. — ^You have bestowed your favors to the most 
deserving persons. F. S. 



CHAPTEE VIII. 

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 133. EuLE XXXVII. — Conjunctions 
connect propositions or like terms; as, ^'He 
is wise and she is virtuous ;" ^* Honor your pa- 
rents if you wish, for happiness in life ;" ^^ Wil* 
liam and Mary are a happy pair." 

For the relations which conjunctions bear to 
the subjunctive mode, see § 125. 

Note I. — The conjunction that serves to introduce a sen- 
tence; as, '''•That he should have missed his way is not 
strange." 

Note II. — Disjunctives (or, nor) are of two sorts, real 
and nominal. A king or queen always rules in England. 
Here the Disjunction is real, king and queen being different 
names for different objects. In all real Disjunctions, the 
inference is, that if one out of two (or more) individuals (or 
classes) do not perform a certain action, the other does. 

Note III. — In poetry, nor and or are frequently substi- 
tuted for either and neither ; thus : 

'^ Nor Simois, -V 

Nor rapid Xanthus' celebrated flood." — Addison. 
" Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po."— GtOldsmith. 

Note IV. — If is sometimes employed for whether ; as, 
'' He doubts if two and two make four." 

Note V. — The conjunction is often omitted; as, *'Were 
there no difference there would be no choice," i. e., "»/ 
there were." See § 125. 

Note VI. — Some conjunctions have their corresponding 
conjunctions, so that in the subsequent member of the sen- 
tence the latter conjunction answers to the former ; as, 

N 



194 ' SYNTAX OF CONJUJ^CTIOKS. 

1. Though — yet, nevertheless; as, ^'Though -deeip, yet 
clear ; though gentle, yet not dull." 

2. Whether — or; as, ^'Whether he will go or not, I can 
not tell." 

3. Either — or ; as, * ^ I will either send it or bring it my- 
self." 

4. Neither — nor; as, ^^ Neither thou nor I am able to 
compass it." 

5. As — AS; expressing a comparison; as, ^^He is as 
good as she." 

Note YII. — In like manner, certain conjunctions corre- 
spond with certain adverbs : 

1. As — so; expressing a comparison ; as, ^^^5 he excels 
in virtue, so he rises in estimation;" ^'As the stars, so shall 
thy seed be." 

2. So — AS ; ' ^ To see thy glory so as I have seen Thee in 
the sanctuary;" "Pompey was not so great a man as Cae- 
sar." 

3. So — that; expressing a consequence; as, *'He was 
so fatigued Ma^ he could scarcely move." 

4. Eather — THAN; as, "He would consent rather than 
suffer." 

5. Not only — but also ; as, *'He was not ow/y prudent, 
hut he was also industrious." 

Note VIII. — In like manner, certain conjunctions corre- 
spond with certain adjectives ; as, 

1. Other — than; ''Were it any other than he, I w^ould 
not submit ;" ''He is greater than I." 

2. Same — as; "Your paper is of the same quality as 
this." 

3. Such — as ; '' I will give you such pens as I have." 

4. Such — ^that; "His diligence was such that his friends 
were confident of success. " 

5. Comparatives generally are followed by than ; as, " He 
is greater than \,^^ 

Note IX. — ^Neither, nor, and either, or, should be 
placed next the words to which they refer ; as, " Neither ha 
nor his friends were present;" "It neither improves the un- 
derstanding nor delights the heart." 

Note X.-r-The pronominal adjective all sometimes beau- 
tifully supplies the place of the copulative conjunction ; as, 
^'' All heart they live, all head, all eye, all ear. 
All intellect, all sense." — Paradise Lost, 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 195 



EXERCISES IN THE SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule XXXVII. — -a. This rock soon became hallowed 
in the esteem of the Pilgrims, and these hills grateful to 
their sight. C. S. 

h. I shall visit him this summer because he desires it. 
C. S. 

c. The day is pleasant because the sun shines. The day 
will be pleasant if the sun shine. C. S. 

Note I. — That we may fully understand the subject, let 
us consider the following propositions. C. S. 

Note II. — a. A king or queen always rules in England. 
C. S. 

h. The syntactical division of the parts of speech may bo 
traced to the first beginnings of dialectic or logic, in other 
words, to Plato. The formation of a system of logic is, in 
fact, simply a discovery of the principles of syntax, or of the 
formation of sentences. C. S. 

Note III. — a. Nor pain, nor grief, nor anxious fear 
Invade thy bounds. C. S. . 

&. Oh ! struggling with the darkness of the night, 

And visited all night with troops of stars, 
Or when they climb the sky, or when they sink. C. S. 

Note IV. — I can not say if he was here, for I was absent. 
C. S. 

Note V. — a. This elegant rose, had 'I shaken it less, 

Might have bloomed with its owner awhile, C. S. 

h. Reason holds, as it were, the balance between the pas- 
sive and the active powers of the mind. C. S. 

Note VI. — a. Though He slay me, yet will I trust in Him. 
C. S. 

h. Whether he will publish his work or not is uncertain. 
C. S. 

Note VII. — Pope does not show so much genius as Dry- 
den in his works, but more finish. C. S. 

Note VIII. — And, behold, it was no other than he. C. S. 

Note IX. — a. Neither flattery nor threats could prevail. 
C. S. 

h. Corn is not separated but by threshing, nor men from 
worldly employments but by tribulation. — Burton. Nor is 
in this case used without its correspondent conjunction neither. 

Note X. Tell him all terms, all commerce I decline ; 

Nor share his council, nor his battle join. C. S. 



196 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

§134. EuLE XXXVIIL — Certain Inter- 
jections are joined with the objective case of 
the pronoun of the first person, and with the 
nominative of the pronoun of the second ; as, 
''Ah me!" ''Oh thou!" Oh or 0, in some 
cases, seems to stand instead of a subject and 
verb; as, 

" O ! that the rosebud which graces yon island 
Were wreathed in a garland around him to twine." 

" Oh that those lips had language ! life has passed 
With me but roughly since I saw thee last." 

ELLIPSIS. 

§ 135. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words nec- 
essary to the full construction of a sentence. See § 95. 

This figure is very common in the language, and often 
serves to avoid disagreeable repetition. When the ellipsis 
would obscure the sentence or weaken its force, it should 
not be admitted. No very definite rules can be given. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

1. These counsels were the dictates of virtue and the dic- 
tates of true honor. F. S. The second dictates should be 
omitted. 

2. A taste for useful knowledge will provide for us a great 
and noble entertainment, when others leave us. F. S. It 
should be other entertainments. 

3. Without firmness, nothing that is great can be under- 
taken, that is difficult can be accomplished. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

1. That species of commerce will produce great gain or 
loss. F. S. 

2. His crimes had brought him into extreme distress and 
extreme ]X5»'plexity. F. S. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 197 

3. The people of this country possess a healthy climate 
and soil. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE. 

1. The more I see of his conduct, I like him better. F. S. 

2. The gay and the pleasing are sometimes the most in- 
sidious and the most dangerous companions. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PRONOUN. 

1. I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. F. S. 

2. His reputation and his estate were both lost by gaming. 
F. S. 

3. In the circumstances I was at that time, my troubles 
pressed heavily on me. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE YERB. 

1. The sacrifices of virtue will not only be rewarded here- 
after, but recompensed even in this life. F. S. 

2. Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence to be strength- 
ened and to be confirmed by principle. F. S. 

3. All those possessed of any office resigned their former 
commission. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADYERB. 

1. The temper of him who is always in the bustle of the 
world will be often ruffled and often disturbed. F. S. 

2. We often commend imprudently as well as censure im- 
prudently. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PREPOSITION. 

1. Censure is a tax which a man pays the public for be- 
ing eminent. F. S. 

2. Reflect on the state of human life, and the society of 
men as mixed with good and with evil. F. S. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

1. No rank, station, dignity of birth, possessions, exempt 
men from contributing their share to public utility. F. S. 



198 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

2. Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, 
nor his friends, nor his reputation. F. S. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

The pujdl is expected to make the corrections and gwe the 
Rules. 

1. Neither death nor torture were sufficient to subdua 
the minds of Cargill and his intrepid followers. 

2. Out of my doors, you wretch ! you hag ! — Merry Wives 
of Windsor. Supply the ellipsis. 

3. Believe me, the providence of God has established such 
an order in the world, that, of all that belongs to us, the 
least valuable parts can alone fall under the will of others. 
— BoLiNGBROKE. What word will you substitute for alone, 
and where in the sentence will you place it ? 

4. The earth is so samely, that your eyes turn toward 
heaven — toward heaven, I mean, in the sense of sky. Give 
the rule for forming adverbs from adjectives. 

5. We must not make a scarecrow of the law, 
Setting it up to fear tlie birds of prey. — Siiakspeaee. 

I vfere flayed of flaying them=I Avas afraid of frightening 
them. To fear, in the first example^ and flaying, in the last, 
which is provincial, are examples of verbs used in a causative 
sense. 

G. From what we can learn, it is probable that apples will 
be so plenty the coming fall, that the inferior sorts will not 
be gathered at all. What word will you siibstitute for plenty, 
and why ? 

7. He that cometh unto me I will in no wise cast out. 

8. He is always master of the subject, and seems to play 
himself with it. 

9. We enter, as it were, into his body, and become in some 
measure him. 

10. One more unfortunate, 

Weary of breath ; 
Rashly importunate, 
Gone to her death Hood. Sujyplj the ellipses. 

11. Passengers are forbidden standing on the platform of 
the cars. How is standing; parsed f 

12. There are but few that know how to conduct them un- 
der vehement affections of any kind. — President Edwards. 
What ivill you substitute for them ? 

13. It is more than a twelvemonth since an evening lee- 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 199 

tuie was. set up in this town. Name the section in ivhich such 
expressions as t\velvemonth are inentioned. 

14. Either, said I, you did not know the way well, or you 
did ; if the former, it was dishonest in you to undertake to 
guide me ; if the latter, you have willfully led me miles out 
of my way. — W. Cobbett. How do you parse former and 
/atter? 

15. You are a much greater loser than me by his cleath. 

16. Christ, and him crucified, is the head, and the only 
head of the Church. 

17. I do not suppose that w^e Britons want genius more 
than the rest of our neighbors. 

18. The first proposal was entirely different and inferior 
to the second. 

19. Read, for instance, Junius's address, commonly called 
his letter to the king. 

20. To the happiness of possessing a person of such un- 
common merit, Charles soon had the satisfaction of obtain- 
ing the highest honor his country could bestow. Soon united 
the satisfaction^ etc. 

21 . The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. 

22. He is the man I want. What ellipsis is here f 

23. Whom he would he slew ? How do you parse whom ? 

24. Forthwith on all sides to his aid, was run 

By angels many and strong. — Paradise Lost^ 6. 

How do you parse was run ? Is it used impersonally ? 

25. The youth and inexperience of the prince, he was 
only fifteen years of age, declined a perilous encounter. /* 
he not used instead of the 7'elative ? In old writers^ he, she, 
and it are used instead of relatives, 

26. Who would have thought of your presiding at the 
meeting ? 

27. There is a house to let in the next street. See § 120. 

28. If I open my eyes on the light, I can not choose but 
see. What is there that is peculiar in this sentence ? 

29. The spread of education set the people a thinking and 
reasoning. How do you parse a ? 

30. What is religion? Not a foreign inhabitant, not 
something alien in its nature, which comes and takes up its 
abode in the soul. It is the soul itself lifting itself up to its 
Maker. — W. E. Channing. Supply the ellipsis. 

31. Out of debt, out of danger. Supply the ellipsis. 

32. I thought to have heard the noble lord produce some- 
thing like proof. 



200 SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

33. I have, therefore, given a place to what may not be 
useless to them whose chief ambition is to please. They 
stands for a noun already introduced ; those, on the contrary^ 
stands for a noun not previously introduced ; them, in this exam- 
ple, is used improperly. 

34. My purpose was, after ten months' more spent in com- 
merce, to have withdrawn my wealth to a safer country. 

35. I have heard how some critics have been pacified with 
claret and a supper, and others laid asleep with the soft 
notes of flattery. 

36. They that are truly good must be happy. 

37. He was more bold and active, but not so wise and 
studious as his companion. 

38. The greatest masters of critical learning differ among 
one another. 

89. She mounts her chariot in a trice, 

Nor would he stay for no advice, 
Until her maids that were so nice, 
To Avait on her were fitted. — Drayton. 

40. Thank you ; beseech you ; pray you ; cry you mercy ; 
would it were so ; whither art going ? Supply the ellipsis in 
each case, 

41. Seest how brag yon bullock bears ; 

So smirk, so smooth, its pricked ears. — Spenser. 

Supply the ellipsis. 

42. The train of our ideas are often interrupted. 

Is there a God to swear by, and is there none to belicv-^ 
in, none to trust to ? This is barely allowable. 

43. Mr. such an one was strongly opposed to the measure. 

44. The sense of the feeling can indeed give us the idea 
of extension. 

45. And though, by Heaven's severe decree, 
She suifers hourly more than me. 

46. The chief ruler is styled a president. 

47. Let he that looks after them look on his hand ; 

And if there is blood on't, he's one of their band. — Soott. 

48. No one messmate of the round table was, than him, 
more fraught with manliness and beauty. 

49. The winter's wind, 
Which, when it bites and blows upon my body, 
Even till I shrink with cold, I smile and say. 
This is no flattery. 

50. Anger is like 

A full hot horpe, who, being allowed his way, 
Self-mettle tire^ him, — Hcnnj VII I. ^ i. 



SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 201 

How do you parse which and who in the last tivo passages? 
Are they in the nominative absolute ? 

51. Who riseth from a feast 
With that keen appetite that he sits down ? 

Merchant of Venice. 
How is the second that parsed? Is it in the nominative also- 
lute ? 

52. False prophets w4iich come to you in sheeps' clothing, 
but inwardly they are ravening wolves. — Matt., xiii., 21. 

53. "There's I." " There's you." Which is the subject 
and which is the predicate in these two examples ? 

54. There's two or three of us have seen strange sights. 
Which is the subject? 

55. Vain wisdom all, and false philosophy, 

Yet with a pleasing sorcery could charm. — Par, Lost., ii., 565. 
What is nominative to could charm ? 
53. The milk -maid singeth blithe. 

And the shepherd whets his scythe. — Milton. 

57. Their idleness, as well as the large societies which 
they form, incline them to pleasure and gallantry. 

58. King James the First was seized with a tertian ague, 
which, when. his courtiers assured him, from the proverb, 
that it was health for a king, he replied that the proverb 
was meant for a young king. Hoio do you jiarse which ? 

59. To be humane, candid, and generous, are in every 
case very high degrees of merit. 

60. Nor have I, like an heir unknown, 
Seized upon Attalus his throne. 

61. I have read the Emperor's Charles the Fifth's life. 

62. He whom ye pretend reigns in heaven, is so far from 
protecting the miserable sons of men, that he perpetually 
delights to blast the sweetest flowers in the garden of hope. 

63. Some of the most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual 
were destined to salute the new kalends of eTanuary with 
vows of public and private felicity, to indulge the pious re- 
membrance of the dead and living. 

64. How is your health ? How do your pulse beat ? 

65. In his days, Pharaoh-Necho, King of Egypt, went up 
against the King of Assyria, to the River Euphrates, and 
King Josiah went against him, and he slew him at Megid- 
do, when he had seen him. — Ambiguous Syntax. To whom 
does he refer? 

&^. Yet you, my Creator, detest and spurn me, thy crea- 
ture, to whom thou art bound by ties only dissoluble by the 
annihilation of one of us. — Frankenstein. 



202 EXEECISES IN SYNTAX. 

67. A people that jeoparded their lives unto the death. 

68. Although the conciliating the Liberalists and paralyz- 
ing the Royalists occupied considerable time, he was never 
for an instant diverted from his purpose. — W. Scott. This 
use of the participle is not destitute of authority. What form, 
however^ is preferable ? 

69. It is not fit for such as us to sit with the rulers of the 
land. — Scott's Ivanhoe. 

70. I took the steam-boat as you. 

71. One of his clients, who was more merry than wise, 
stole it from him one day in the midst of his pleading ; but 
he had better have let it alone, for he lost his eause by his 
jest. 

72. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows, 
Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows. 

73. James used to compare him to a cat that always fell 
upon her legs. 

74. Perhaps, too, this preponderance of what is termed 
fashion is with the Whig party ; an assistance of very little 
use now to what it Avas when they were in a small minority, 
and required certain prestiges to protect them from ridicule. 
— BuLWER. To what it was is idiomatic, but is not so much 
used as formerly. 

75. This effect, we may safely say, no one beforehand 
could have promised upon. 



EXEECISES UNDER SYNTACTICAL 
FORMS. 

SYNTACTICAL ANALYSIS. 

§ 136. By Syntactical Analysis is meant 
that process by wliicli tlie Syntactical Forms 
are distinguished and exhibited in accordance 
with the preceding syntactical rules. 

EXAMPLES. 

1 . Virtue rewards her followers. 

This is a simple sentence. Virtue is the subject ; rewards 
is the predicate ; follovjers is the object, which enlarges the 
predicate. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 203 

Virtue is a common abstract noun, of the third person, 
singular number, usually of the neuter gender, but here 
personified in the feminine gender. It is both the gram- 
matical subject and the logical of the verb rewards ; is in the 
nominative case. (Rule I. A noun used, etc.) 

Rewards is a verb of the weak conjugation, usually called 
regular, in the active voice, indicative mode, present tense, 
third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject 
nominative virtue. (Rule XXIV. A verb agrees, etc.) 

Her is a personal pronoun, in the genitive case, and lim- 
its followers. (Rule II. A noun (or a pronoun) used to 
limit, etc.) 

Followers is a common noun (correlative with leader), 
in the third person, singular number, neuter gender, in the 
objective case, and governed by the transitive verb rewards. 
(Rule III.) 

2. He labored faithfully in the cause, and he was suc- 
cessful. 

This is a compound sentence, and contains two co-ordi- 
nate sentences. He is the subject of the first sentence ; la- 
bored is the predicate, which is enlarged by faithfully. He 
is the subject of the second sentence ; successful is the pred- 
icate, taken with the copulative verb was. 

He is a personal pronoun, of the third person, masculine 
gender, of tlie singular number, in the nominative case. 
(Rule I. A noun used, etc.) 

Labored is a verb of the weak conjugation, in the active 
voice, in the indicative mode, past tense, third person, sin- 
gular number, and agrees with its subject he. (Rule XXIV. 
A verb agrees, etc.) 

Faithfully is an adverb, from the adjective /a^^A/^//, and 
enters into combination with the verb labored. (Rule XXXV. 
Adverbs modify, etc.) 

In is a preposition, showing the relation between cause 
and labored. (Rule XXXVI. Prepositions, etc. ) 

The is the definite article, and defines cause. (Rule IX. 
The article the, etc.) 

Cause is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, in the objective case, and governed 
by in. (Rule XXXVI. Prepositions, etc.) 

And is a copulative conjunction, connecting two proposi- 
tions. (Rule XXXVII. Conjunctions, etc.) 

He as before, and is nominative to ivas. (Rule I. A 
noun used, etc.) 



204 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

Was is a verb, from the substantive verb was, am, been. 
It is in the indicative mode, past tense, third person, singu- 
lar number, and agrees with its subject nominative. (Rule 
XXIV. A verb agrees, etc.) 

Successful is an adjective of the positive degree, and is 
the predicate after was. (Rule V., Note I. Adjectives are 
used in two ways, etc.) 

3. Foul craven ! exclaimed Ivanhoe , does he blench from 
the helm when the wind blows highest ? 

Foul is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs 
to craven. (Rule V. Adjectives, etc.) 

Craven is a common noun, and is here a part of an ex- 
clamation. (Rule I., Note IV. A noun in the nominative, 
etc.) 

Exclaimed is a verb in the past tense, in the active voice, 
from the transitive modern verb exclaim, and agrees with its 
subject nominative Ivanhoe. (Rule XXIV. A verb, etc.) 

Ivanhoe is a proper noun, in the third person, singular 
number, and is nominative to exclaimed, according to Rule I. 

Does blench is a verb in the interrogative form, from 
the modern or weak verb blench, in the indicative mode, 
present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees 
with he, according to Rule XXIV. A verb, etc. 

He is a personal pronoun, in the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, and nominative to does blench. 
(Rule I. A noun used, etc.) 

From is a preposition, and expresses the relation between 
blench and helm. (Rule XXXVI. Prepositions, etc.) 

Helm is a common noun, in the third person, singular 
number, neuter gender, and is governed by the preposition 
from. (Rule III., Note IV.) 

When is an adverb of time, and modifies the verb blows. 
(Rule XXXV. Adverbs modify, etc.) 

The is the definite article, and limits the noun wind. 
(Rule VIII. The article, etc.) 

Blows is a verb, from the ancient verb bloiv, blew, blown. 
It is in the indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, and agrees with its subject nominative 
wind. (Rule XXIV. A verb agrees, etc.) 

Highest is an adjective in the superlative degree, a/i is 
a predicate with the verb blows. (Rule V., Note VII.) 

4. Hlgli on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Ind, 

Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 205 

Sliov7ers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat, by merit raised to that 
Bad eminence. — Milton. 

High is an adjective in the positive degree, and qualifies 
Satan, some would say; but in reality comes after sat, in 
construction, to make a part of the predicate. (Rule V., 
Note VII.) 

On is a preposition, showing the relation between sat and 
throne, and governing throne, (Rule XXXVI. Preposi- 
tions, etc.) 

A is an indefinite article, used according to Rule VIII. 
The article, etc. 

Throne is a common noun, in the singular number, neu- 
ter gender, in the objective case, and governed by the prep- 
osition on, (Rule III., Note VI. A noun depending, etc.) 

Of is a preposition, showing the relation between throne 
and state, and governs state, (Rule XXXVI. Preposi- 
tions, etc.) 

Royal is an adjective, and qualifies state, (Rule V. 
Adjectives, etc.) 

State is a common noun, of the third person, singular 
number, objective case, neuter gender, and is governed by 
of, (Rule III., Note VI.) Let the pupil Jinish the analysis. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES IN CORRECT SYNTAX 
FOR ANALYSIS. 

§ 137. The Learner is expected to analyze all or a part 
of the following examples, and particularly to give the rules 
for the words in Italics : 

1. ''His power and the number of his adherents declining 
daily, he consented to a partition of the kingdom." — North 
American Review, 

2. ''The fire-places were of a truly patriarchal magni- 
tude, where the whole family, old and young, master and 
servant, black and "white, nay, even the very cat and dog, 
enjoyed a community of privilege, and had each a prescrip- 
tive right to a corner." — W. Irving. 

3. " On, then, all Frenchmen that have hearts in their 
bodies !" — Carlyle. 

4. "The Bastile is still to take=to be taken." 

5. " Oh! that I could but baptize every heart with the 
sympathetic feeling of what the city-pent child is condemned 
to lose ; how blank, and poor, and joyless must be the im- 



206 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

ages which fill its infant bosom to that of the country one, 
whose mind 

'' Will be a mansion for all lovely forais, 
His memoiy be a dwelling-place 
For all sweet sounds and harmonies." — W. Howi'fT. 

To that is an idiomatic expression occasionally met with, but 
it should not be encouraged. By filling out the ellipsis we 
get the more correct expression. 

6. ''All morning since nine there has been a C7^y^ To the 
Bastikr'' — Carlyle. How do you parse to the Bastilef 
T. '*• Bethink thee^ William, of thy fault, 

Thy pledge and broken oath ; 
And give me back my maiden vow, 
And give me back my troth." — Mallet. 

8. ''With a callous heart the?'e can be no genius in the 
imagination o?- wisdom in the mind ; and therefore the 
prayer, with equal truth and sublimity, says, 'Incline your 
hearts unto wisdom.' Resolute thoughts find words for 
themselves, and make their own vehicle. Impression and 
expression are relative ideas. He who feels deeply will ex- 
press strongly. The language of slight sensations is natu- 
rally feeble and superficial. " — Sir Philip Francis. No and 
07' are substituted for neithe?' and noi\ 

9. '' Tri^imphal arch ! that fiU'st the sky 

When storms begin to part, 
I ask not proud philosophy 
To tell me what thou art." — Campbell. 

10. " St. Agnes' Eve ! A bitter chill it was ! 

The owl, for all his feathers, was a-cold/'' — Keats. 

11. "Half the failures in life arise from pulling in one^s 
horse when he is leaping." — Guesses at Tr^uth. 

12. '''•Who builds a church to God, and not to fame. 

Will never mark the marble A^ith his name." — Pope. 

13. " Some men so dislike the dust kicked up by the gen- 
eration they belong to, that, being unable to pass, they lag 
behind it." — Guesses at Truth. 

14. "The most mischievous liars are those who keep on 
the verge of truth." — Ibidem. 

15. " Go search it there, where to be born and die, 

Of rich and poor makes all the history." 

16. "There needs no other proof that happiness is the 
most wholesome moral atmosphere, and that in which the 
immortality of man is destined ultimately to thrive, than 
the elevation of soul, the religious aspiration which attends 
the first assurance, the first sober assurance of true love." — > 
Deerhrook. 



EXERCISES IN SYInTTAX. 207 

17. *'It was opened by a young girl of thirteen or Jbur- 
teen. " — Dickens. 

. 18. *'To Brighton the Pavilion lends a lath and jtlaster 
grace." 

19. What do you understand by rmum and tuum? Meum 
is all I can get. Tuum is all others can prevent me from 
getting. — Punch. 

20. When I say the "rose smells SAveet," and *'I smell 
the rose," the word smell has two meanings. In the latter 
sentence, I speak of a certain sensation in my own mind ; 
in the former, of a certain quality in the flower which pro- 
duces the sensation. Here the word smell is applied with 
equal propriety to both. 

21. " Away went Gilpin, and away 

Went Gilpin's hat and wig; 
He lost them sooner than at first, 
For whyf they were too big." — Cowper. 

22. Did you never observe (says Mr. Gray, in a letter to 
a friend), while rocking winds are piping loud, that pause, as 
the gust is re-collecting itself, and rising upon the ear in a 
shrill and plaintive note, like the swell of an iEolian harp ? 
I do assure you there is nothing in the world so like the 
voice of a spirit. 

23. The foundations of his fame are laid deep and imper- 
ishable, and the superstructure is already erected. — New 
Englander, Explain theidiom. See § 121. 

24. The language of the moral law is, man shall not kill; 
the language of nature is, a stone will fall to the ground. — 
Whewell. Explain the difference of use in the words shall 
and will. 

25. What signify to me the beautiful discourses and praises 
one lavishes on one's self and one^s friends ? — Lamartine. 

26. Spirits are not finely touched 

But to fine issues : nor Nature never lends 
The smallest scruple of her excellence, 
But, like a thrifty goddess, she determines 
Herself the glory of a creditor ; 
Both thanks and use. — Measure for Measure, 

Justified on the ground of ancient usage. 

27. The affections are to the intellect what the forge is to 
the metal ; it is they which temper and shape it to all great 
pui-poses : soften, strengthen, and purify it. — Mrs. Jameson. 

28. Plato, in his Cratylus, and Aristotle in his Organon, 
have laid the foundations of the philosophy of language. 
The speculations of the first bear, when well understood, 



208 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

upon the highest problems of the philosophy of language ,• 
the categories and the definitions of the second give the log- 
ical foundation of our grammatical system, and establish by 
themselves the great principle that is the immediate produce 
and expression, as it were, the mirror of logic and thought. 

^C. C. S. BUNSEN. 

29. In poetry, when the letter is false, the spirit is often 
profoundest wisdom. — W. E. Channing. 

30. Hence arises the distinction of subjective and object- 
ive truth. The former we consider as existing in ourselves, 
the latter as existing in objects out of ourselves. 

31. Malevolti had noticed these splenetic efforts; but 
though a man of fiery character, and proud enough to dare 
the proudest he who ruffled his complacency by a look, etc. 
In what case is he^ and how used ? 

32. But the only reliable and certain evidence of devotion 
to the Constitution is, to abstain, on the one hand, from vi- 
olating it, and to repel, on the other, all attempts to violate 
it. It is only by faithfully performing these high duties that 
the Constitution can be preserved, and with it the Union. — 
J. C. Calhoun. What part of the last sentence does it 
represent? 

33. And such, Mr. President, was the high estimate which 
I formed of his (Mr. Calhoun's) transcendent talents, at the 
end of his service in the executive department, under the 
administration of Mr. Monroe, that, had he been translated 
to the highest office in the government, I should have felt 
perfectly assured that, under his auspices, the honor, the 
prosperity, and the glory of our country would have been 
safely preserved. — H. Clay. 

34. We shall delight to speak of him (Mr. Calhoun) to 
those who are coming after us. When the time shall come 
that we shall go, one after another, in succession, to our 
graves, we shall carry with us a deep impression of his gen- 
ius and character, his honor and integrity, his amiable de- 
portment in private life, and the purity of his exalted patri- 
otism. — D. Webster. 

DIRECTION TO THE PUPIL. 

Let the pupil, commencing with the Jirsit rule under Syntac- 
tical Forms, compose sentences, longer or shoi'ter, illustrating 
each rule and each note in succession, according to the following 
model. 



EXERCISES IIJ SYNTAX. 209 

// the pupil finds himself unable to compose sentences which 
will illustrate all these rules and notes, he may he at liberty oc- 
casionally to select examphs. 

TJic author attaches great importance to this exercise. 

MODEL. 

Rule I. — The Greeks surpassed the Romans in their loVo 
of the beautiful, but the Romans surpassed the Greeks in 
their love of right. 

Note I. — Lord Raglan having died at Sebastopol, Gen- 
eral Simpson was appointed his successor. 

Note II. — Oh, the ingratitude of man ! How ready is he 
to forget his benefactors ! 

Note III. — The leaders of the party — how despicable they 
are ! 

Note IV. — As the army reached the summit of the mount- 
ain, a shout was heard from thousands. The sea! the sea ! 

Note V. — The Revere House. The Winthrop House. 

Note VI. — To whom thus Zephon, answering scorn with scorn. 

Milton. 

Note VII. — Who discovered the laws which governed the 
planets in their orbits? Kepler. Who demonstrated the 
truth of those Laws ? Newton. 

o 



210 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE 
SYNTAX AND PARSING. 

1. You and me will go. 

Correct, before parsing, in the following manner : Me will 
go. This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun "me," 
which is in the objective case, is used as the subject or predi- 
cate of the finite verb ''will go ;" but a noun used either as the 
subject or predicate of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 
" Me" should be /, and the sentence should be read thus, 
You and I will go. 

The teacher should require an explicit explanation of the error, 
and the rule which has been violated, verbatim, until the pupil is 
perfoctli/ J'amiliar with the reasons of all the errors which occur. 

2. The man who I suppose to bj the one has not arrived. 
3. Was it her that you expected to have arrived ? No, it was 
me. 4. Him being sick, we de]):irted. 5. The man he was 
seen do it. 6. Ambition ! What evils have always arisen 
from ambition ! 7. Whom did you say it was ? The Prince 
of Wales. I hardly thought it could be him. 8. They must 
have hurt each other very much, for you seen they fought 
like tigers. 9. Whom do you think it to be ? 10. Whom do 
you think it is? I can assure you, sir, it is my mother's 
sister's cousin. 

11. The celebrated geniuses sit around the table prepared 
for their game, but the dies were missing, and the genii who 
was to have insured success was deaf to every call. 12. 
Riches takes to themselves wing and flies away (riches is al- 
ways plural). 13. Thou, who wast my friend when others had 
forsook me, I will never, no, never, forget. 14. Thou, who 
will be remembered by me at my death, should remember 
me in my life. 15. I, who am your friend, entreats you to 
act with caution. 16. He, who had presence of mind, might 
have laid down and escaped the blow. 17. He and I am 
going, but you or she is to remain home. 18. Thou or he 
art expected to be present ; wilt thou come ? If it be possi- 
ble, I will. 19. I do not know whom it was struck the blow. 
20. I do not know what it was. 

21. Those sort of things is injudicious. 22. Be sure and 
give your name, town, and state ; each of these particulars 
are important. 23. Yesterday, when slie lays down, she 
hoped to have been batter. 24. He is afraid of me being sick. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 211 

25. Carefully unpack these cut-glass shades; each of these 
have in them a glass chimney. 26. He has laid all night on 
the damp ground, and this morning feels very bad. 27. She 
looked so sweetly on the hardened criminals that every heart 
was softened. 28. She, looked so sweet that every one ad- 
mired her. 29. He who I sent has arrived. 30. He was 
seen bj several go into the burning house. 

31. They would have ate them, could they have reached 
the bough. 32. Them that are the most admired have fre- 
quently the worst tempers. 33. He is the smartest boy which 
I ever seen. 34. All who enjoy the protection of the govern- 
ment will be taxed for its support. 35. How do you do to- 
day ? Are you well ? No, I am 7'eal sick. 36. Where is 
he ? He is to home. 37. Each of the boys have their les- 
sons to learn; not one of them dare go to school without 
learning it. 38. I durst him to leap the ditch, and, coward 
as he is, he dared. 39. Mary, was you there when this oc- 
curred ? 

40. Wanted — a young man to take care of some horses 
of a religious turn of mind. 41. The wounded man had 
laid on the ground all night without knowing that near him 
lay his own brother. 42. They ivere offered very lucrative 
situations. 43. Her being the only daughter, no expense was 
spared. 44. I like Macaulay better than Alison's style. 45. 
Smith's and Johnson's partnership is dissolved. 46. Who 
should I meet the other day but my old friend? "Well," 
says I, "old fellow, how is thee ?" 47. I knew it to be he. 
48. Every person should try to govern their temper and 
tongue. 49. If any one have the measles, we will not enter 
for fear of catching it {measles is plural). 

50. Samson is the strongest man whom we read of in the 
Scriptures. 51. Make a memoranda of any remarkable 
event the two Misses Smith may tell you. 52. She was ca- 
terer for the company, but always refused to give an account 
of the monies which she received. 53. Argus is said to have 
had an hundred eyes. 54. A historical work of great merit 
(an h{stO)ical, because the accent is not on the first syllahle 
of historical). 55. I never dared to trust these sort of peo- 
ple. 56. There is another and a better world. 57. Mary is 
not so good a cook as a washerwoman. 58. Thou mayst im- 
prove by the reading good books. 59. We will incite the 
envy of less happier lands. 

60. All the horrors of war are more preferable than the 
evils growing out of rebellion. 61. Russia is greater than 



212 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

any country of Europe. 62. Rhode Island is smaller tliah 
any one of the United States. . 63. My son is come. 61. He 
will be possessed of great riches at his father's death. 65. 
It must be so, for miracles are ceased. 66. I hoped to have 
met several of my friends there, but was disappointed. 67. 
Whatever is worth being done, is worth being done well. 
68. Four is too many to ride at once. 69. Generation after 
generation pass away. 

70. What signifies good words without good deeds. 71. 
Where is your pen and paper? 72. How is your brother and 
sister? 73. The s'um of fifty thousand have been expended 
to benefit them ; and this alms is received without gratitude. 
74. The child has forgot to cross her ts and dot her is. 75. 
Neither you, nor no one else, can walk ten miles in one hour. 
76. When I bid thee study, darest thou to be idle ? 77. I 
never studied Grammar, but I can talk just as well as them 
that talk grammatical. 78. The old miser ! he was never 
known give a cent to his country. 79. This is a diff'erent 
dinner to what we had yesterday. 

80. The sentence has no resemblance with the other. 81. 
The soil is adapted for coffee and sugar. 82. The people 
can not be long deceived by its demagogues. 83. I only 
bought a pair of shoes. 84. He was unanimously elected by 
all. 85. Mary, she went yesterday. 86. The wind blowed 
the house down. 87. The boiler bursted instantly. 88. 
The bee stung her as she drunk her milk. 89. It blowed 
all night. 90. Three month's interest were due. 91. The 
ship with all her men were lost. 92. My friend, and not 
my enemies, were the cause of my ruin. 93. Who did you 
speak to ? The two drum-majors' secretaries, the drum-ma- 
jor's sister, and the sergeant-at-arms' sister. 94. The s' 
loops are not formed well. 95. The s' shade is too heavy. 
96. The s' shades are too heavy. 97. It's leg was broke. 
98. These kind of apples are very desirable. 99. The king's 
guard were on the spot. 

100. If I was you I would not waste so much time. 101. 
How can thou expect to understand an explanation when 
you was attending to something else. 102. She looks ele- 
gantly, plays sweet, and is amiable. 103. To be moderate 
in ones desires, and working assiduously, is the surest road 
to success. 104. I am not as bad as I seem. 105. Your 
composition is neither good or bad. 106. Tell me if I must 
go or stay. 107. He reads better than me. 108. Doctor 
says I am very sick (The doctor). 109. The doctors say that 
this climate is unhealthy (Doctors say). 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 213 

110. Who will read first? Me. 111. "Mary," said her 
mother, "where is your sisters' slate?" "To home," says 
Mary. 112. I will not destroy the city for ten's sake. 1 13. 
Rise early, lest thou should be late. 114. Was he as bad as 
you say, he would not have done it. 115. He was heard 
say, "Oh, I hate him." 116. I heard him to say, "Fll kill 
him." 117. Henry the seventh, the first of the house of tu- 
dor, ascended the throne of England A.D. 1485. 118. Na- 
poleon's army were defeated at Moscow in 1812. 119. Wel- 
lington's and Blucher's army was successful at Waterloo 
against Napoleon in 1814. 

120. Marie Antoinette, Louis queen, was considered the 
most handsomest woman in France. 121. The intensity of 
the cold, and not the fear of the Russians, were the cause of 
Napoleons defeat. 122. Lie the book on the table. 123. 
On the death of Richard there >vere too claimants to the 
throne John, and Arthur, Geoffrey Plantagenet's son. 124. 
The three Miss Henries. 125. The two General Peirces. 
126. My mother has a red, a blue, and a green carpet in her 
parlor. 127. The red, white, and blue flags were blended 
into one. 128. Jane and Lucy's dresses are alike. 129. 
Charles's and Henry's mother lives in Chestnut Street. 

130. Whom sent you for that book? Her. 131. How 
old is that colt ? Three year and six month. 132. He has 
undertaken a too long voyage. . 133. This is the young man 
of which I spoke. 134. The man and the w'agon which you 
see yonder are going to mill. 135. Who, which could do 
such a thing, would remain here. 136. He would have done 
it much better than them. 137. The person which sent you 
expected you to have performed the duty promptly. 138. 
Every boy and every girl were rewarded according to their 
merits. 139. We seen her going to the river. 

140. Has he spoke to you about it ? No, though he said 
he would. 141. He is come. 142. Give every syllable and 
every letter their proper sound. 143. This bonnet is Marys 
or Susan's. 144. Was Eve Cain's and Abel's mother ? 145. 
Was Cain and Abel's occupation the same? 146. He has 
been laying there for a long time. 147. Whom do the Jews 
say that I the Son of Man am ? 148. Well, no matter, they 
said it was me. 149. They believed it to be I. 

150. It is them. 151. It was a board of ten foot long. 
152. Give him a dollar, lest he takes thy life. 153. Him, be- 
ing defeated they soon gained the victory. 154. Thee, look- 
ing on, shame to be overcome or overreached, would utmost 



214 EXEKCJSES IN SYNTAX. 

vigor raise. 155. I have heard him to mention the subject. 

156. A good reader will make himself distinctly to be heard. 

157. I belieyed, whatever was the issue, all would yet be 
well. 158. I have never heard who they invited. 159. 
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 

160. The number of prisoners has not yet been correctly 
ascertained. 161. Israel doth not know, my people doth not 
consider. 162. It is no more but justice to make rebels pay 
for the rebellion. 163. What is the cause of the leaves curl- 
ing ? 161. We hoped to have seen you. 165. Was there 
no difference there would be no choice. 166. Tell me 
whether thou wilt do it or no. 167. I do not recollect ever 
having paid it. 168. His father's and mother's consent was 
asked. 169. Had I knew it I should not have went. 

170. The Jews are Abraham's, Isaac's, and Jacob's pos- 
terity. 171. There was the archives, there all which we 
held most dear. 172. Shall the throne of iniquity have 
fellowship with thee, which frameth mischief by a law? 
(Meaning, Can that which is so wicked as to frame mischief by 
a law have fellowship with God?) 173. Shun such as prom- 
ise fair and perform badly. 174. To despise the poor or to 
fawn upon the rich are actions equally sinful. 175. She 
has no other dress but that. 176. Whose pen is this ? 
Johns. 177. This account I have only found in Macaulay. 
178. Confide thy sorrow in thy friend. 179. I have no 
friend to whom I can confide. 

180. Compare your writing to the copy, and you will see 
how very poor it is. 181. I can not accord to you in that 
opinion, though I am willing to accord with you all the 
praise you deserve. 182. If you would be a true artist copy 
after Nature. 183. How blest are those children who may 
safely copy from a beloved parent. 184. He easily gained 
admission to the White House, but every effort was unavail- 
ing to procure it to the President. 185. He sought to be the 
martyr of his cause. 186. *' I differ frcm you in the opinion, 
sir, that it is more honorable to die by a disease than of a 
sword in the service of your country." 187. They defended 
the multitude against the attacks of the cavalry. 188. She 
defended herself from all his attacks. 189. The minister 
corresponds with the secretary of state every day, but the sec- 
retary of state's opinions and the ministers do not correspond 
with each other. 

190. The secretarys opinions are not correspondent tp 
those of the minister's, 191, IJe ia very diverse from his pa* 



tlXEHCISES IN SYNTAX. 215 

r«iirs. yt)2^. "As you walk out this morning, children," said 
the rtiother, ^^call on house No. 121, to make a call at your 
uncle in order to reconcile him with you, for he is seriously 
offended." 193. Well, I hope I am not like he ; I should 
think I differ considerably with him in character. 19^. ''I 
have had no taste for raspberries this summer,^' says Mrs. 
Partington, ^'they were so dear; but I have always a taste 
of the beauties of Nature, for that you can get for nothing." 
195. In vain do I endeavor to reconcile their conduct to 
their professions. 196. The memoranda you made is lost. 
197. Good teachers, good apparatus, and uniformity in text- 
books, is great desiderata in public school education. 198. 
The bellows is burning, the scissors lies on the floor, and the 
tongs is under the table. 199. What are the news? Oh ! a 
glorious victory. 

200. Our best means of protection lie in the courage and 
patriotism of our citizens. 201. Conies are easily studied. 
202. Her alms was placed in the treasury among the prince- 
ly donations of the wealthy. 203. Musselmen, the followers 
of Mahomet, have for their sacred book the Koran. 204. 
To live honestly and work diligently is required of all. 205. 
The foci of the ellipse are at equal distances from the centre. 
20G. Many celebrated automata has been exhibited at vari- 
ous times. 207. The bird has flew away, and I have showed 
him for the last time. 208. He, being lain on the damp 
ground, has took a violent cold. 209. If he desires it when 
I come, he shall have it. 

210. If's is a mighty peacemakei*. 211. If's have a won- 
derful influence in the world. 212. Fear that person who 
has plenty of but's, wdien they praise their friends. 213. 
There are many errors in those ephemeris. 214. The magus 
were there, but failed to interpret the handwriting on the 
wall. 215. We can account for the paradox of an open Polar 
Sea by this hypotheses. 216. The eaves is dripping with 
rain. 217. Billiards are a fascinating game. 218. What's 
the odds? 219. The odds are the difference. 

220. The Alleghanys range from N.E. to S.W. 221. 
When the House proceeds to elect the President, the votes 
shall be taken by yeas and nays. 222. The Indias afford 
immense wealth to Great Britain. 223. Pie told me who 
of the two men was innocent. 224. The man as sows when 
others sleep, shall have, etc. 225. Ignorance or prejudice 
have caused the mistake. 226. Ignorance or prejudices has 
caused the mistake. 227. Many means was employed to 



216 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

reform liim, but no one means were efficient. 228. BoolxS 
are a common noun, singular number, and are subject, etc. 
229. How is your mother and your father ? 

.230. Place on his tomb this inscription, *'Ilere lies a 
statesman and a philosopher. " 231. The crew was drowned. 
This crew was a heroic band. 232. The President, with the 
Cabinet, felt the need for the removal. 233. There is a 
great difference of opinion among the Secrvlary of War and 
the General commanding. The Secretary would not agree 
with the plan, and the General would not agree to the Sec- 
retary. 234. I can not agree to your proposal, sir. I differ 
from you in so many points. 235. Defend your family against 
the invaders, lest they die of a sword. 236. There is not the 
slightest diminution from my interest in the good cause. 
237. Who was that intelligence received from. 238. They 
will remain at New York for a day or two, and then proceed 
to Saratoga. 239. He divided his property between his 
children and sisters. 

240. For all our righteousness are but as filthy rags. 241. 
Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious 
companions. 242. I will not destroy the city for tens sake. 
243. He lost his life for conscience's sake. 244. James's 
Street is the next we come to. 245. Will you obtain the 
pardon ? Yes ; we already have the Governor's and Secre- 
tary's signature. 246. This is a picture of Eaphael. 247. I 
was here introduced to Justus's son. 248, If you suffer for 
righteousnesses sake, happy are ye. 249. He was offered a 
pardon, but the conditions could not be complied with. 

250. I called at Harper's, the well-known publisher's and 
bookseller's. 251. Thales's answer to the question was not 
a wise one. 252. There are two very tall men on the road, 
but the first is rather the tallest. 253. He spoke most ad- 
mirable on the subject. 254. The poor is always with you, 
and whensoever ye will ye may do him good. 255. Which is 
the smarter girl in the first class? Her. 256. Boston ig 
the largest city of Canada. 257. The Mississippi is larger 
than any river of the U. S. 258. He speaks correct. 259. ' 
The board looks smoothly, but really it is rough. 

260. The weather is very severe, and she looked so coldly 
when she came in that I pitied her from my heart. 261. 
The Andes are the highest mountains of South America. 
262. She reads beautiful. 263. What 1 said must have hurt 
her feelings very much, for she looked so cold upon me. 
264. I mean the last two girls. 265. A board six foot long. 



EXERCI'^^ZS IN SYNTAX. 217 

JGG. She looks bcautifuily. 267. Drink deeply or taste not 
the Pierian Spring. 268. I never read those sort of works. 
269. Give me them apples. 

270. Each of the boys were there, and every one of the 
girls w^ere absent. 271. Every nineteen years form a lunar 
cycle, and every twenty-eight years a solar cycle. 272. On 
either side of the river grew the tree of life. 273. Take 
either of these three positions Avhich you choose. 274:. No 
vessels are better than iron-clads (ineanmg that iron-dads are 
the best kind of vessels which have been built), 275. No ves- 
sels are better than Chinese junks {meaning that a nation 
might as well have no vessels as the miserable Chinese junks'). 

276. Each have their place appointed, each their course. 

277. Six pairs of shoes were stolen. 278. Those sort of 
people are to be shunned. 279. The sun and the moon were 
created on the fourth day, this to rule the day, that to rule 
the night. 

280. Is the child entirely idiotic? Oh, no ; she has little 
sense. 281. I would not have thought it })ossible for any 
person to have done such a thing, but that I know she has a 
little sense on any subject. 282. To complete his motley 
appearance, he rode a black and a white horse. 283. 
''Here," said he, "are a black and white horse; take your 
choice." 284. It needed the Newton to demonstrate the 
laws of gravitation. 285. The red and white rose were the 
emblems of the Houses of Lancaster and York. 286. All 
men who were present voted against the measure. 287. 
He is a kind and a loving father. 288. He is a just, an up- 
right, and a humane President. 289. I saw my way clear. 

290. There are a few words more frequently misapplied 
than those I have mentioned. 291. The committee were di- 
vided in their opinions, and sent in a minority as well as 
majority report. 292. There was not a dissentient voice in 
the jury, and their verdict w^as received with acclamations. 
293. How many cruelties have been practiced on the cat in 
consequence of the vulgar idea that it has nine lives. 294. 
Many a brave soldier, with manly air and martial tread, 
hastens to rescue his countries flag from the hands of those 
who would desecrate it! When the clouds roll from the 
battle-field, where will he be? 295. The deer, pursued by 
the hounds, hurried back to his old haunts. 296. Read 
"Kane's Yoynges;" they will furnish you with a correct 
view of Arctic life. 297. He begged the President to allow 
him to pursue the ] hm which he proposed, assuring him 



218 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

that if he would give liim his support he would guarantee 
him the result he desired. 298. Wlien such as us can sit in 
the chair of state, what more is there to ask? 299. I en- 
treat you to go, for thou art well aware that none but you 
will be successful. 

300. Encouraged by their approbation, and that of better 
judges than them, he redoubled every effort, and at last 
achieved success. 301. Practice, and not profession, determ- 
ine a man's character. 302. One or the other of them shall 
go, whether they wish it or no. 303. Neither of them will 
acknowledge they did it. 304. Neither the president of the 
company nor the directors consider them.selves to blame in 
the matter. 305. Who done it? Why, he just done it his- 
self. 306. Myself and wife congratulate you. 307. Solo- 
mon was the son of David who built the Temple. 308. It is 
the wisest plan which can be adopted, I think. 309. All of 
you which are going, step this way. 

310. Who, who has the feelings of a man can endure the 
horrible barbarities which are inherent to the system? 311. 
Do you remember the lady and the kitten which we saw? 
Yes, they were the same which are in the next room. 312. 
Believe it, or not, as you please, it is he who did it. 313. 
After all, I don't know but what I'll go. 314. The pen with 
that I write is a gold one. 315. The man I traveled with 
was your brother. 316. He who was the conqueror of It- 
aly, and that dictated terms of peace from the palace of Ber- 
lin, at last found his conqueror in the snows and frost of 
Moscow. 317. He made an eloquent address to the crowds 
who assembled in froni of the house. 318. The criminal 
was hung by the sheriff who committed the murder. 319. 
Take that meat to the elephant which I left in the closet. 

320. No wonder that such a simple, straightforward meth- 
od found no favor in the coterie of Talleyrand : Talleyrand, 
that is but another name for diplomacy. 321. Well, I can't 
say but what he did it. 322. We will give you that we have. 
323. The place where I find you, my child, proves that you 
are a participant in the crime. 324. It was a common 
thing in the draft that, of two associates, one would be taken, 
' another would remain. 325. Twice are too often. 326. 
The man that not only loveth his friends, but also loves his 
enemies, shall be blessed in his spirit. 327. Either sex and 
every age were engaged in the pursuits of industry. 328. 
My sister and I am always quarreling. 329. That great 
statesman and philosopher lie in Christ Church burial- 
ground, corner Eifrh and Arcli, Fhihidelphia. 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 219 

330. John, with his companions, see the whole transac- 
tion from the observatory in which they are posted. 331. 
I or my sister go every day, but I and my sister goes only 
once a week. 332. Thou, he, or I hast to serve ; which of 
them shall it be? 333. Thou, he, and I hast to serve. 
Truly, of you it may be said. We are a redoubtable company. 
334. I, thou, or he have done it, but which of us I wdll not 
say. 335. The army was scattered through the provinces. 
336. Admission to the court was denied to him. 337. I 
will lay me down and sleep in peace. 338. I bid you to go 
instantly. 339. She dared me to do it, and when I am dared 
do a thing I must do it. 

340. He needs not go unless he choose. 341. Was he to 
study he would succeed. 342. If you be satisfied with your 
present condition, I will not interfere. 343. If you are here 
next week I shall see you. 344. He has bursted open the 
door, drank all the milk, broke the jug, and ought to be 
drownded. 345. '* It is mine," says he, ^' that was gave to me 
by my brother." 346. He dont do it. 347. That was low 
indeed ! that was an ignominy and shame beneath this down- 
fall. 348. Will you ride or no ? 349. They bore her as long 
as they could, and when they could not endure her no more 
they dismissed her. 

350. He drew up a paper w^here he too frequently repre- 
sented his own merits. 351. By the exercising our faculties 
they are im})roved. 352. He lives down to Dedham. 353. 
They always bestow tlieir favors to these from whom they 
cxi)ect a return. 354. I shall be to Boston next month. 
355. I can not comply to your request. 356. Adapt your 
dress with my taste. 357. Neither Charles the First or James 
the Second had any perception of the true temj)er of the En- 
glish people. James was so foolish as Charles. 358. As 
your study so is your success. 359. Mont Blanc is not as 
high as Dhawalnghiri. 

360. He lay so long we thought him dead. 361. He was 
not only learned, but prudent. 362. If it were any other, I 
would not consent. 363. His diligence was such as his friends 
were confident of success. 364. Parnell is not as great a 
writer as others of that age. 365. He was seen fall to the 
ground, where he laid for hours. 366. When he arrived at 
the place where he was to meet his friend, he was not there ; 
so he started from thence immediately. 367. Lie up in your 
heart the truths I have told you. 368. To be ])oor and 
honest is more preferable than to be rich and dishonest. 
369. The day will be pleasant if the sun shines. 



220 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

370. First, I shall state the proposition ; second, I shall 
try to prove it. 371. There is still Richmond to take. . 372. 
My sister or I goes daily, but my sister and I never goes 
together. 373. They had began to move in the morning, 
and expected to have arrived in time to prevent the defeat; 
and I have no doubt but that they done so. 374-376. We 
obtained a more perfect knowledge of the country the further 
we advanced, and as there was many fine fields of corn to be 
seen, nothing farther was said about the unproductiveness of 
the soil. 377. How badly this dress sets. How bad this 
dress sits. 378. I have found a heavy gentleman's ring. 
379. Was you there when I arrived ? No, I was not, but my 
sister and aunt was. 

380. It is a heroic poem of great merit. 381. I dared do 
no more. 382. Had thou but shook thy head, or made a 
pause, when 1 spake darkly what I purposed, deep shame 
had struck me dumb. 383. Like one that draws the drapery 
of his couch about him, and lays down to pleasant dreams. 
384. 1 oft has fancy, ludicrous and wild, soothed with a wak- 
ing dream. 385. What here we call our life is such, so little 
to be loved, and thee so much. 386. ''Why is it that you 
Swiss are always hiring yourself out for money?" 387. I 
suppose each of us fight for what he stands most in need of. 
388. All men think all men mortal but himself. 389. No 
joys to him pacific scsptres yields. 

390. "Behold surrounding kings their power combine, 
and one capitulates and one resigns." 391. My little child, 
what will thou choose ? 392. If a man fell sick, there were 
no cure, nor esculent, nor chrism, nor liquid, but for lack of 
drugs men pined and wasted. 393. He gave no signs of life 
save his limbs quivering. 394. So shall thou rest ; and what 
if thou withdraw unheeded by the living, and no friend takes 
note of thy departure ? 395. So live, that when thy summons 
come, thou gocst not like the quarry-slave. 396. I, though 
just right, and the fixed laws of heaven did first create your 
leader. 397. I am sure there was forty times fixed for that 
expedition, but none was successful. 398. When him who 
most excels in fact of arms, mistrustful, grounds his courage 
on despair. 399. But whom had delivered them never was 
known. 

400. The juniors (that's the youngest, you know) always 
goes first. 401. No, sir, we knows a good deal better than 
that. 402. The British Parliament were not to be intimi- 
dated with a mob. 403. The thieves and criminals of every 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 221 

kind that swarm in the purlieus of a great city joined the 
rioters. 404. The weather has been uu])recedcnted in re* 
spect to dryness and heat, having prevailed since the middle 
of July. 405. If he be slain, say so. 40G. Rumor is a piper 
blowed by surmises, jealousys, and conjectures. 407. He 
hath divided it equal. 408. Accursed be he that performs 
that act. 409. Him thats coming must be provided for. 

410. All thats theirs will then be your's. 411. When I 
shall of done I will let you know. 412. AVhat's your tid- 
ings? 413. The boy and the carriage Avhich I saw are no- 
where to be found. 414. Neither the boy nor the carriage 
which I saw are to be found. 415. Is it the woman or the 
baby which you speak of? 41G. He is the wisest president 
which the society ever had. 417. All which you can do will 
not save so bad a cause. 418. Who who has any judgment 
but would decide against you. 419. Say what you choose, 
it is the same person which we met yesterday : I know the 
street where we encountered him. 

420. It is precisely the same who did it. 421. It is he 
who did it. 422. The child which you spoke of has not 
come. 423. Since when have you been the principal ? 424. 
He said how he would go. 425. Oh ! my beloved country ! 
I wish I was there. 426. He will never be no better than 
now, nor no wiser. 427. You never do nothing quick. 428. 
They wrote a statement where they too frequently praised 
themselves. 429. My penmanship is so good as yours. 

430. My penmanship is not as good as yours. 431. It is 
neither warm or cold. 432. It is certain that either you nor 
I must be there. 433. Though he slay me, so will I trust 
him. 434. We had no sooner come within a hundred yards 
but they opened fire on us. 435. If I was you, I would rather 
die than do a thing so mean. 436. Nadab and Abihu took 
either of them his censer. 437. The jury was divided. 438. 
The jury was unanimous. 439. Davies's Legendres Geome- 
tries covers (ineavAng the covers of several Geometries written 
by Legendre, iranshted by Loornis). 

440. Davies Legendres Geometry cover {meaning the cover 
of one Geometry'), 441. Neither flatter or contemn the rich 
nor the great. 442. Every one have their faults, nor ought 
we to blame them too severe. 443. Please to remember that 
\ who has the power to enforce the laws, intends to do it. 
444. Remember that I, the president, is here. 445. Many 
would gladly exchange their honors, riches, and station 
for that more quiet and more humbler life which thou art 



222 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

dissatisfied with. 446. '*What about Henry?'' "Well, 
Henry, he hasn't been doing very well this two years past." 
447. You have gave it to her and I. 448. I do not know 
who it was that done that deed, though I seen the one that 
I took to be he. 449. They went at Phila. and were stay- 
ing to Cincinnati. 

450. " Which is most to be admired," says an ancient wise 
man, he who lives for others, or he who seeks nothing so 
much as his own good? 451. May we be workmen that 
needeth not to be ashamed. 452. The dress does not set 
well. 453. You and me drunk that liquor. 454. Him hav- 
ing finished his task, we lay down our books. 455. The sun 
it is shining. 456. To fight for our country are noble. 457. 
This class are large. 458. School are dismissed. 459. The 
class are requested to leave the room in order. 

460. "Who did this?" said the man. "Him," replied 
the child. 461. O thee who art our ruler, guide, and friend. 
462. The farm is John's, Peter's, and Moses's. 463. M'Clel- 
lan and Beauregard's armies. 464. Milton Paradise Lost 
and Dante Jerusalem Delivered are the great productions 
of modern times. 465. It was on account of me not going. 
466. The master being so well informed on every subject, 
inspired confidence in his scholars. 467. This bill gained 
the senators as well as the representatives votes. 468. Do 
not commit the act for consciences's sake. 469. Though at 
times the ascent to the temple of virtue appears steep and 
cragged, be not discouraged. 

470. Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

471. To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temper- 
ately in the pursuit of them, is the best way to insure success. 

472. The politeness of the world has the same resemblance 
with benevolence that the shadow has with the substance. 

473. The English were very different people then to what 
they are at present. 474. To poor we there is not much 
hope remaining. 475. Be honest, nor take no shape nor 
semblance of disguise. 476. He left the seminary at an 
early period, since when he has made very little improve- 
ment. 477. Never sovereign was so beloved by his people. 

478. There will be no danger of their spoiling their faces. 

479. The doctor, in his lecture, said that fever always pro- 
duced thirst. 

480. It required so much care that I thought I should have 
lost it before I reached home. 481. Next New Year's day I 
shall be at school three years. 482. We should not bo liko 



/EXEKCISES IN SYNTAX. ' 223 

many persons, to deprecate the virtues we do not possess. 
483. Whatever others do, let thou and I act wisely. 484. 
What can be the cause of the Parliament neglecting such an 
important matter? 485. That is the eldest son of the King 
of England's. 486. My ancestors virtue is mine. 487. And 
I persecuted this way unto the death. 488. A talent of this 
kind would, perhaps, prove the likeliest of any other to suc- 
ceed. 489. 'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to 
maintain one. 

490. Whatever he undertakes, either his piide or his folly 
disgust us. 491. She was industrious, frugal, and discreet, 
and by this means obtained property and reputation. 492. 
Frugality is one mean of acquiring a competency. 493. 
Much does human pride and self-complacency require cor- 
rection. 494. He does not want courage, but is defective in 
sensibility. 495. The dog in the manger would not eat the 
hay himself, nor suffer the ox to eat it. 496. As far as I 
am able to judge, the book is well written. 497. They are 
both praiseworthy, and one is equally deserving as the other. 
498. He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 499. 
He has little of the scholar besides the name. 

500. In the order as they lie in his preface. 501 . Be ever 
ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance. 502. 
Alfred, than who a greater king never reigned. 503. Al- 
fred, a greater king than him never reigned. 504. There 
is no quality as useful toward success in business, or which 
puts men more out of the reach of accidents, but that quality 
generally possessed by persons of cool temper, and is, in com- 
mon language, called discretion. 505. Though the fact be 
extraordinary, yet it is true. 506. If there be but one body 
of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there are only 
two there will want a casting vote. 507. Rye or barley, when 
they are scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 508. 
Every plant and every tree produces fruit after their kind. 
509. Some are too ignorant to be humble, without which 
there can be no docility. 

510. Remember the condition whence thou art rescued, 
and be humble and grateful. 511. It is impossible for such 
men as those ever to determine this question, who are like- 
ly to get the appointment. 512. Poverty and obscurity will 
opi)ress him only who esteems it oppressive. 513. Now, my 
son, I forgive you and freely pardon your fault. 514. Was 
it thou or the wind who shut the door ? Me. 



224 ' EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 



PARSING EXERCISES. 

M9 oft has Fancy, ludicrous and wild, 
Soothed with a waking dream of houses, towers, 
Trees, churches, and strange visages, expressed 
In the red cinders, while with poring eye 
I gazed, myself creating Avliat 1 saw. 

The miracles thou callest for this attest ; . 

For say, could Nature Nature's course control? 
But miracles apart, who sees him not. 
Nature's controller, author, guide, and end? 
Who turns his eye on Nature's midnight face 
But must inquire, " What hand hehind the sun, 
What arm almighty, put these wheeling glohes 
In motion, and ATound up the vast machine? 
Why call for less than is already thine ?" 

Why then their loss deplore, that are not lost ? 

Why wanders wretched Thought their tombs arouiwS 

In infidel distress? Are angels there? 

Slumbers raked up in dust, ethereal fire? 

They live ! they greatly live ! a life on earth 

Unkindled, unconceived, and from an eye 

Of tenderness let heavenly pity fall 

On me, more justly numbered with the dead. 

This is the desert, this the solitude : 

How populous, how vital is the grave ! 

This is Creation's melancholy vault, 
The vale funereal, the sad cypress gloom ; 
The land of apparitions, empty shades 1 

1 do not rise to waste the night in words ; 

Let that plebeian talk ; 'tis my trade ; 

But here I stand for right — let him show proofs — 

For Roman rights ; though none, it seems, dare stand 

To take their share with me. Ah 1 cluster there I 

Cling to j^our master, judges^ Romans, slaves ! 

His charge is false ; I dare him to his proofs. 

You have my answer. Let my actions speak. 

But this I will avow^ that I have scorned, 

And still do scorn, to hide my sense of wrong. 

Who brands me on the forehead, breaks my sword, 

Or lays the bloody scourge upon my back, 

Wrongs me not half so much as he w^ho shuts 

The gates of honor on me. 

Oh divine Nature^ how thy.^elf thou blazons 
In these two princely boys ! They are as gentle 
As zephyrs blowing below the violet. 
Not wagging his sweet head, and yet as rough — 
Their royal blood unchafed — as the rudest wiiid 
That by the top doth take the mountain pine. 
And make him .sfoop to the vale. 'Tis wonderful 
That an invisible instinct should frame them 
To royalty unlearned ; lionor untaught ; 



EXERCISES IN SYKTAX. 225 

Civility not seen from other; valor ^ 

That wildly grows in them, but yields a crop. 

As if it had been sowed, 

T. Yet why complain ? or why complain for one ? 

Hangs out the sun his lustre but for me, 
The single man ? are angels all beside ? 

8. What then am I, who sorrow for myself? i 
In age, in infancy, from others' aid 

Is all our hope ; to teach us to be kind : 
That Nature's first, last lesson to mankind, 

9. Oh thou, whate'er thou art, whose heart exults, 
Wouldst thou I should congratulate thy fate ? 

I know thou wouldst ; thy pride demands it from me. 
Let thy pride pardon what thy nature needs, 
Thy salutary censure of a friend. 

10. Pupil What shall I do lest life in silence pass ? 
Tutor, And if it do. 

And never prompt the bray of noisy brass, 

What needst thou rue? 
Kemember, ay, the ocean deeps are mute, 

The shallows roar ; 
Worth is the ocean ; fame is but the bruit 
Along the shore I 
Pupil. What shall I do to be forever known ? 
Tutor. Thy duty ever. 

Pupil. This did full many who yet sleep unknown. • 
Tutor. Oh I never, never! 

Think'st thou, perchance, that they remain unknoini» 

Whom thou knowest not ? 
By angel trumps their praise is blown, 
Divine their lot ! 

11. Let us, then, be up and doing, 

With a heart for any fate ; 

Still achieving, still pursuing, 

Learn to labor and to wait. 

12. At last the day before the opening year came. 

" Papa will be home to-morrow," said Emma. ** I woHn 
der what he will bring me for a New Year's gift.'* 

"I wish he would bring me a book," eaid George. 

"Pd like a pair of new shoes," remarked the little girl, 
more soberly, looking down at her feet, upon which were 
tied, with coarse strings, what were called shoes, but hardly 
retained their semblance. ** And mamma wants shoes too," 
added the child. " Oh ! I wish papa would bring her, for a 
New Year's gift, a nice pair of new shoes." 

The mother heard her children talking, and sighed to 
think how vain were all their expectations. — T. S. Arthur's 
WomarCs Trials. 

p 



226 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

13. Honor and Money. — A French officer said to a Swiss 
officer, *' Why is it that you Swiss arc always hiring your-^ 
selves out to fight ?" " And what do you fight for ?" replied 
the Swiss. "For honor, of course," said the other.' "• Then," 
resumed the Swiss, *'I suppose each of us fights for what he 
stands most in need of." — Percy Anecdotes. 

14. Fal. Well, 'tis no matter, honor pricks me on. Yea, 
but how if honor prick me off when I come on ? How then ? 
Can honor set to a leg ? No. Or an arm ? Or take away 
the grief of a wound ? No. Honor hath no skill in surgery, 
then ? No. What is honor ? A word. What is in that 
word ? Honor. What is that honor ? Air. A trim reck- 
oning. Who hath it? He that died o' Wednesday. Doth 
he feel it ? No. Doth he hear it ? No. Is it insensible, 
then ? Yes, to the dead. But will it "not live with the living ? 
No. Why? Detraction will not suffer it. Therefore I'll 
none of it. Honor is a mere scutcheon, and so ends my 
catechism. [Exit, 

15. Harken the rest, 
And marvel further— what more arts and means 
I did invent— this greatest ! — if a man 

Fell sick, there was no cure, nor esculent, 
Nor chrism, nor liquid, hut for lack of drugs 
Men pined and wasted, till I showed them all 
These mixtures of emollient remedies 
Wherehy they might he rescued from disease. 

16. Some angel guide my pencil while I draw. 
What nothing less than angel can exceed, 
A man on earth devoted to the skies ; 
Like ships at sea, while in, above the world. 

17. Little he said, and now and then he smiled, 

As if to win a part from off the weight 
He saw increasing on his father's heart, 
With the deep deadly thought that they must part. 

18. He gave no signs of life save his limb's quivering. 

19. So shalt thou rest ; and what if thou withdraw 
Unheeded by the living, and no friend 

Take note of thy departure ? 

20. So live that, when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan that moves 

To that mysterious realm where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night 
Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave 
Like one that draws the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 

Bryant's ThaunatopsiS' 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 227 

21. Here I bind 
Myself to suffer what I claim against him, 
And yield to have what I have spoke confirmed 
By judgment of the court and all good men. 

22. Know 
I come no enemy, hut to set free 

Both him and thee, and all the heavenly host 
Of spirits, that, in our just pretenses armed, 
Fell with us from on high ; from them I go 
This uncouth errand sole, and one for all 
Myself expose ; 

To search Avith wandering quest a place foretold 
Should he, and, hy concurring signs, ere now 
Created, vast and round, a place of bliss 
In the purlieus of heaven, and therein placed 
A race of upstart creatures. 

He ceased, for both seemed highly pleased, and Death 
Grinned horrible a ghastly smile, no less rejoiced 
His mother bad, and thus bespake her sire : 
But what owe I to his commands above, 
Who hates me, and hither thrust me down ? 

Paradise Lost^ Book 2d, p. 1G5. 

23. I classed, apraising once 

Earth's lamentable sounds— the welladay, 
The jarring yea and nay. 

24. And who saith '-'• I loved once ?" 

Not angels, whose clear eyes love, love foresee, 

And by "• To Love" do apprehend To Be. 

Not Grod, called Love, his noble crown-name, casting 

A light too broad for blasting ! 
The Great God, changing not from everlasting, 

Saith never '•'• 1 loved once." 

25. Too weak to move 
One sphered star above, 

Man desecrates the eternal God- word love 
With his No More and Once. 

2C. *' My little child, what wilt thou choose ? 

Let me look at thee, and ponder 
What gladness from the gladnesses 
Futurity is spreading under." 

27. Ador. Oh! seraph, pause no more ! 
Beside this gate of Heaven we stand alone. 

Zerah. Of Heaven! 

Ado7\ Our brother hosts are gone — 

Zerah. Are gone before. 

28. For now 
My earthly by his heavenly overpowered. 

Which it had long stood under, strained to the heighth 

In that celestial colloquy sublime. 

As with an object that excels the sense 

Dazzled and spent, sunk down and sought repair 

Of sleep, which instantly fell on me, called 

By nature as in aid, closed mine eyes. 



228 EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

29. In this pleasant soil 
His far more pleasant garden God ordained. 

30. For Hot, Cold, Moist, Dry, four champions fierce 
Strive here for mastery. To whom these most adhere 
He rules a moment ; Chaos umpire sits, 

And by decision more embroils the fi'ay 
By which he reigns. 

31. When he, who most excels in fact of arms, 
In what he counsels, and in what excels. 
Mistrustful grounds his courage on despair 
And utter dissolution. 

32. Me though just right, and the fixed laws of heaven, 
Did first create your leader; next, free choice, 
With what beside?, in council or in fight, 

Hath been achieved of merit. 

Milton's Paradise LesU 

33. Epitapu on a Lady. 
Underneath this stone doth lie 
As much beauty as could die, 
Which in life did harbor give 
To more virtue than doth live. 

S4 All men think all men mortal but themselves ; 

Themselves, when some alarming shock of fate 
Strikes through their hearts the sudden dread : 
But their hearts wounded, like the wounded air, 
Soon close ; where past the shaft no trace is found. 
As from the wing no scar the sky retains, 
The parted wave no furrow from the keel, 
So dies in human hearts the thought of death. 

35. Thoughts shut up, want air, 
And spoil, like bales unopened to the sun. 

Had thought been all, sweet speech had been denied : 
Speech, thought's canal! speech, thought's criterion tooi 

36. No joys to him pacific sceptres yield; 

War sounds the trump, he rushes to the field ; 
Behold surrounding kings their power combine. 
And one capitulate, and one resign. 

*' Vanity of Human Greatness.^* 

37. What if (since daring on so nice a theme) 
I show thee friendship delicate as dear, 
Of tender violations apt to die ? 

Young's Night Thoughts, 

B8. But no : what here we call our life is such. 

So little to be loved, and thou so much. 
That I should ill requite thee to constrain 
Thy unbound spirit into bonds again. 

CowrER's '•'• Lines on his Mother's Picture.''^ 

S9. For me, when I forget the darling theme. 

Whether the blossom blows, the >nmmer ray 
Russets the plain, inspiring Autumn gleams, 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 229 

Or Winter rises in the blackened east — 
Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no more. 
And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat 
Should fate command me to the farthest verge 
Of the green earth, to distant barbarous climes, 
Rivers unknown to song ; where first the sun 
Gilds Indian mountains, or his setting beam 
Flames on the Atlantic isles, 'tis naught to me ; 
Since God is ever present, ever felt, 
In the void waste as in the city full ; 
And where he vital breathes, there must be joy. 
When even at last the solemn hour shall come. 
And wing my mystic flight to future Avorlds, 
I cheerful will obey ; there with new powers 
Will rising wonders sing, I can not go 
Where universal love not smiles around, 
Sustaining all yon orbs, and all their suns ; 
From seeming evil still educing good ; 
And better thence again, and better still, 
In infinite progression. 

40. Far liever had I gird his harness on him, 

And ride with him to battle, and stand by 
And watch his mightful hand striking great blows 
At caitiffs and at wrongers of the world. 
Far better were I laid in the dark earth, 
Not hearing any more his noble voice. 
Than that my lord through me should suffer sbame» 
Am I so bold, and could I so stand by. 
And see my dear lord wounded in the strife, 
Or may be pierced to death before mine eyes, 
And y«t not datre to toll him what I think? 



230 EXEECISES IN PARSING. 

EXERCISES m PARSING. 

Parse the words in Italics. 

1. Be kind one to another, 

2. The rudiments of every language 7nust be given as a 
task. 

3. He demands as sifavor what the other requires as a debt. 

4. Let us therefore stop while to stop is in our power. 

5. " That I know not what I want is the cause of my com- 
plaint," said the prince. 

6. See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow ! 
Which who but feels can taste. 

7. A field of corn, a fountain, and a wood, 
Is all the wealth by nature understood. 

8. Oh fool I to think God hates the worthy mind, 
The lover and the love of human kind, 
Whose life is healthful — 

Because he wants a thousand pounds a year. 

9. He must speak truth 
An^ they ivill hear it, so, if not he's plain. 

10. Mildewyrom bettveen his shriveled lips. 

11. Oh, what a tangled web we weave ! 

12. Sorrow makes the night morning. 

13. Nor then the solemn nightingale ceased warbling. 

14. These are thy blessings, Industry ! rough power, 
Whom labor still attends, and sweaty andpam. 

15. Whose freedom is at sufferance and at will 
Of a superior, he is never free. 

16. What! canst thou not forbear me half an hour? 
Then get thee gone^ and dig my grave thyself. 

17. So reads he nature whom the lamp of truth 
Illuminates — thy lamp^ mysterious Word^ 
Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost 
With intellects bemazed in endless doubt. 
But runs the road of wisdom. 

18. That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. 

19. He felt the truths I sing, and I in him. 

20. Amid the forms which this full world presents 
Like rivals to his choice, what human breast 
E''er doubts, before the transient and minute, 
To prize the vast, the stable, and sublime? 

21. Such was that temple built by Solomon, 
Than whom 7ione richer reigned o''er Israel. 

2% With fatal eagerness we burn^ 

And qnlt the shores undestinecl to return. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 231 

23. Such resting found the sole of unbless'd feet. 

24. No quick reply to dubious questions make. 

25. ''Be all the dQ^6. forgot f said Foldwrath's bursting 
yorath. 

26. What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme ! 

27. In who obtaia defense, or who defend, 

In him who is, or him who finds, a friend. 

28. Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes. 

29. They went out one by one. 

80. The temple late two brother sergeants saw, 

Who seemed each other oracles of law. 

31. He only recommended this, and not the washing of 
one another^s feet. 

32. By my own showing, the error is my own. 

S3. Eager that last great chance of war he waits, 

Where either'' s fall determines both their fates. 

34. Of worm or serpent kind it something looked. 

35. iVrt?/, cease to kneel, iYiy fellow-servant I. 

3G. To thee were solemn toys or empty show^ 

The robes of pleasure and the veils of woe. 

37. What made Luther a great man was his unshaken con- 
fidence in God. 

38. Was this owing to there being twelve primary deities 
among the Gothic nations ? 

39. Was this because there were twelve primary deities 
among the Gothic nations ? 

40. We rode sixty miles a day. 

41. Earth's highest station ends in ''Here he lies," 
And " Dust to dust" concludes her noblest song. 

42. They glowed, and grew more intimate with God, 
More worth to men, more joyous to themselves. 

43. It is worth while. 

44. My situation is worth one thousand a year. 

45. The book is worth a shilling. 

46. The hour concealed, and so remote the year death still. 

47. Where is the ever-to-he-honored Chaucer ? 

48. Where thy true treasure ? Gold says, " Not in we." 
And '•'' Not in me" the diamond. Gold is poor. 

49. Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
I served my king, he would not have left, etc. 

50. Truths would you teach, or save sl sinking land ? 

51. Jb be, or not to be ? that is the question. 

52. To others 'lo ivhat to thyself thou wishest done. 



232 EXERCISES IN PAESING. 

53. Such conduct becomes a man. 

54. The boy becomes a man. 

55. What next I bring shall please thee, be assured; 
Thy likeness^ thy fit help, thy other self. 

50. Seems, madam I nay^ it is ; I know not seems ! 

'Tis not alone my inky cloak, good mother. 

57. Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 

Is hut the TYiore a. fool, the more a knave. 

58. The JdgTier a bird flics, the more out of danger he is. 

59. For man to tell how human life began 

Is hard; for who Mmse(/ heginning knew ? 

CO. Or that choice plant, so grateful to the nose. 

Which in I know not lohat far country grows. 

61. That mind is not matter is certain. 

62. There is no place so quiet or so pleasant as a welL 
ordered school. 

63. Surely I come quickly. Amen. Even so, come Lord 
Jesus, 

C4. His being idle, and dishonest foo^ 

Was that which caused his overthrow. 
C5. But where is he, the Pilgrim of my song? 

Methinks he cometh late and tarries long. 

66. He will tell you *'that whatever is is right." 

67. What nothing earthly gives or can destroy, 
The soul's calm sunshine and its heartfelt joy. 
Is Virtue's prize. 

68. If that thou be'st a Roman, take it forth 

69. Had you rather Caesar were living and die all slaves, 
than that Caesar were dead to live all free men? 

70. There is tears for his love. 

71. What can be avoided whose end is purposed by the 
mighty gods ? 

72. I follow you to do I know not what, 

73. What a fearful night is this ! 

74. Let the gods so speed me, as 1 love 

The name of honor more than I fear death. 

75. Casca will tell us tvhat the matter is. 

76. He called me friend, but what of that ? 

77. What is auf/ht but as ''tis valued. 

78. Who were those went by ? Queen Hecuba and Helea 

T9. Whom I most hated living, thou hast made me, 

With thy religious truth and modesty, 
Now in his ashes houor. 

80. Ifs one o'clock, boy, is't not? 



I 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 233 

81. If you may confess it, say, wUJial, 
If you are bound to us or no. 

82. Mark but my fall, and that that ruined me. 

83. Let all the ends thou aimest at be thy country's. 

84. Then if thou falVst^ oh Cromwell, 
Thou fall'st a blessed rmartyr. 

85. Q. Katharine. Would I had never trod this English earth. 
Wolsey. If your grace 

Could hut be brought to know our ends are honest, 
You''d feel more comfort. 

SO. Time wasted is e^icisteQce ; used^ is life. 

And bare existence man., to live ordained^ 
Wrings and oppresses with enormous weight. 

87. Time's use was doomed a pleasure. 

88. Naught but what wounds his virtue wounds his pea(e. 

89. All men are about to live 
Forever on the brink of beiiig horn ; 

All pay themselves the compliment to think 
They one day shall not drivel. 

90. Time lodged in their own hands is Folly's vaih, 

91. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

92. The curfew tolls ! the knell of parting day ! 

93. Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean hear. 

94. He gave to misery all he had, a tear, 

95. A m,an he was to all the countiy dear. 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 

96. Thus many a sad to-morrow came and went. 

97. Could those few pleasant hours again appear, 
Might one wish briag them, loould I wish them here ? 

98. For I was as it were a child of thee. 
And trusted to thy billows far and near., 

And laid my hand upon thy mane — as I do here. 

$9. Nothing wants hut that thy shape. 

Like his., and color serpentine, may show 
Thy inward fraud. 

100. These to the bower direct 
In search of whom they sought. 

101. Whatsoever he bids you, that do. 

102. Thoy gave what money they had. 

103. What! take my life as well as my money! 

104. Do ivhnt ye will, my lords. 

105. What though I know her virtuous 
And well deserving? 

106. He, like a Icing remote and ireak, must take 
What satisfaction thou art pleased to make. 



234 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

107. ' Tis revelation what thou think'st discourse, 

108. Thee lastly, nuptial bower ! by me adorned 
With what to sight or smell was sweet I 

109. What thou seest is thyself. 

110. What she wills to do or say 

Seems wisest, virtuousest^ discreetest, bes 

111. She what was honor knew. 

112. With grace that ivon who saw to wish her stai/. 

113. Forgetful what from him I still received. 

114. Whom hast thou, then, or ivhat to accuse? 

115. What could be less than to afford him praise f 

116. What seemed his head the likeness of a kingly crown 
had on. 

117. Whatever doing, what can we suffer more, 
What can we suffer Avorse? 

lis. I should be much for open war, oh peers, if what was urged, 
Did not dissuade me most. 

119. What private griefs they have, alas ! I know not. 

120. What then? what vests? 
Try whit repentance can. What can it not ? 
Yet ivhat can it when one can not repent? 
Oh wretched atate 1 

121. For what we know, must be— why should we 
Take it to heart ? 

122. No person whatever shall leave the car. 

123. I will both lie down and sleep in peace. 

124. Neither he nor I can do it. 

125. Pay no moment but in purchase of its worth ; 
And what its worthy ask death-beds — they can tell. 

126. By Nature's law, what may he, 7nay he now. 

127. On this perhaps, this per adventure infamous for lies, 
as on a rock of adamant, we build our mountain hopes. 

128. His being a good penman soon gained him employ- 
ment. 

129. Man^ too, he sung ; immortal man I sing, 

130. At thirty man suspects himself a fool; 
At fifty chides his infamous delay, 
Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve. 

131. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth. 

132. Were we to tread on superior powers, 
Inferior might on ours. 

133. I had as lleve not he as to be such a one as 1 am. 

134. And all hut he departed. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 235 

135. If it Were so I would not tell you. 

136. Where passed the shaft no trace is found. 

137. What with cold and what with hunger, the colony 
was greatly reduced. 

138. Darest thou, poor worm, offend Infinity? 

139. TVhatuttev? Where am If wretched maid ! 

140. The tithes, his parish freely paid, he took, 

141. Oh unexpected stroke, worse than of death ! 

142. ''Doth God exact day-labor, light denied f I fondly 
ask. 

143. What there thou seest, fair creature, is thyself, 

144. On, 072, you noblest English! *^ 

145. Romeo. There is no Avorld ivithout Verona walls. 
Hence-banished is banished from the world, 

And world's exile is death. 

146. 1 pray thee, cease thy counsel. 

147. I am not mad. I would to heaven I ivere. 

148. Are you sick, Hubert f I woidd you wer^e a little sick. 

149. Mercy on me I 
Methinks nobody should be sad but /. 

150. Toung iad, coma forth; I have to my with you. 



KEY 

TO 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX 
AND PARSING, Page 210-223. 



2. Suppose wlio. This sentence is incorrect, because the 
pronoun ''who," which is in the nominative case, is rsed as 
the direct object of the transitive verb ''suppose;" but a 
noun or pronoun denoting the direct object or the effect of 
an action is put in the objective case. "Who*' should be 
whom, and the sentence, etc. § 122, Note 5. 

3. It was her. This sentence is incorrect, because the pro- 
noun "her," which is in the objective case, is used after the 
verb "to be," preceded by the nominative case; but. Rule 
29. 

Expected to have arrived. This sentence is also incorrect, 
because the verb "to have arrived," which is in the perfect 
tense of the infinitive, is used when the action signified by it 
is future with respect to the verb "expected," on which it 
depends ; but when the action signified by the infinitive ia 
contemporary with respect to the verb on which it depends, 
t\iQ present tense of the infinitive should be used, and not the 
perfect. 

"It was me." § 121. 

4. § 96, Note 1. 5. The man was seen to do it. 6. Cor- 
rect. 7. Who, § 121. 8. Saw. 9. Correct. 10. Who. 

11. Sat, dice, were, to insure, were. 12. Tj.ke, fly. 13. 
The, forsaken. 14. Wilt, shouldst. 15, \ entreat. This sen- 
tence is incorrect, because the verb "entreats," which is in 
the third person, is used with the nominative "I," which is 
in \hQ first person; but, § 116. 16. Lain. 17. § 117, Note 
6; § 118, Note 2. 18. § 118, Note 1. 19. It was whom. 
This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun whom, which 
is in the objective case, is used after the verb to be, preceded 
by the nominative ; but, § 121. 20. Correct. 

21. This. 22. § 103, Note 6. 23. Lay, to be. 24. Me 



KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 237 

should be my, because it is in the possessive case, governed 
by the participial clause ** being sick," used as a noun. 25. 
Has in it. 26. Has lain, badly. 27. Correct. 28. Correct. 
29. Whom. 30. To go. 

31. Eaten. 32. § 103, Note 4. 33. § 112, Note 3; saw. 
34:. Who should be that, because it is used after '^ all," limit- 
ed by the following clause. 35. Really. 36, § 132, Note 9. 
37. Has his, dares. 38. Dared. 39. Were. 

40. Wanted — a young man of a religious turn of mind, to 
take care of some liorses. 41. Had laid. This sentence is 
incorrect, because the participle laid, of the verb lay, to place, 
is used instead of the participle lain, of the verb lie, to re- 
cline. 42. Very lucrative situations were offered to them. 
43. She. 44. Macaulay's. 45. Smith. 46. Said, How art 
thou ? 47. § 122, Note 5. 48. His. 49. Has, them. 

50. § 112, Note 3. 51. Make a memorandum, Miss Smiths. 
52. Moneys. 53. Correct. 54. An historical. 55. This sort, 
durst, omit *' to." 56. There is another and better world. 
57. Omit "a" before washerwoman, because the nouns be- 
fore and after "as" both refer to the same subject. 58. Omit 
the, § 128. 59. Less happy. 

60. Omit "more" — are preferable to the evils. 61. Rus- 
sia is greater than any other country of Europe. 62. Rhode 
Island is the smallest of the United States. 63. My son has 
come. 61. Will possess great riches. 65. Have ceased. 66. 
I hoped to meet. Whenever the action signified by the infini- 
tive is contemporary or future with respect to the verb on 
which it depends, the present of the infinitive is required, and 
not the ]>erfect. 67. § 128, Note 1. 68. Are. 69. Passes. 

70. Signify, because its subject, *' words," is plural. 71. 
§ 117. 72. § 117. 73. Has, § 12, V. 74. To cross her t's 
and dot her i's. 75. § 130, Note 10. 76. Correct. 77. As 
those that talk grammatically. 78* To give. 79. Rule 20, 
Note 2. 

80. Resemblance to. 81. Adapted to. 82. Their. 83. I 
bought only a pair of shoes. 84. Omit "bv all." 85. Omit 
<'she." 86. Blew. 87. Burst. 88. Drank. 89. Blew. 

90. Was. 91. " Ship ivere.^^ The verb should be singu- 
lar. 92. Was. 93. Whom. 94. The sV (plural poss.) loops 
are not formed well. 95. The s' shade (poss. sing., with nex« 
word commencing with s) is too heavy. 96. The s's' (poss. 
plural^ are too heavy. 97. Its, broken. 98. This, is. 99. 
Was. ' 

100. If I were, § 125. 101. Canst, were. 102. Elegant, 



238 KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

§ 101, Note 7, sweetly. 103. To be moderate in one's de- 
sires and to work assiduously are the surest road to success. 
104. § 133, Note 7-2. 105. § 133, Note 6-4. 106. Note 6 
-2. 107. Than I. 108. Corrected. 109. Corrected. 

110. L 111. At, §132, Note 9. 112. Correct. 113. Lest 
and that, following the imperative mood, require the subjunc- 
iive form in the following verb ; therefore the sentence should 
be. Rise early, lest thou be late. 114. Were he as bad as 
you say, he would not have done it. 115. Insert "to" before 
^'say," because "the sign of the infinitive is not omitted aft- 
er the passive voice." 1 16. § 123. 117. Henry the Seventh, 
the first of the house of Tudor, etc. 118. Was. 119. Wel- 
lington and Blucher's army. 

120. Louis's, omit " most." 12*1. Was, Napoleon's. 122. 
Lay. The transitive verb is '^lay," the intransitive is " ^*e." 
123. On the death of Richard there were two claimants to 
the throne, John and Arthur, Geoffrey (pronounced Jeffrey) 
Plantagenet's son. 124. Sing. Henry, plural HeiTi'ys; sing. 
Mary, plural Marys. Names of persons ending in i/ do not 
change 7j into ies, § 12, Note 8-10. 125. § 12, Note 8-10. 
126. Red, blue, and green, § 105, Note 5. 127. § 105, Note 
5. 129. §97, Note 7. 

130. This is correct if the meaning is, "What person did 
you send for that book?" 131. Years, months. 132. Too 
long a voyage. 133. § 1 12, Note 3d. 134. § 1 12, Note 3d (e). 
135. § 1 12, Note 3d (d). 136. Than they. 137. § 112, Note 
3d. 138. § 103, Note 6 ; § 109. 139. *Saw. 

140. § 128, Note 3. 141. "He is come." It is evident 
that the verb in this sentence has the form of the passive, 
namely, the participle " come" preceded by the verb "to be, " 
without really being in the passive voice, as it is not followed 
by a preposition either expressed or understood, as the pass- 
ive voice always is, nor can it be construed actively. This 
will be easily seen if the pupil will endeavor to do to "He 
is come," what can be done with the sentence "James is 
struck." James is struck by somebody. Somebody struck 
James ; but we can not say He is come by somebody, some- 
body comes him. There are a large number of verbs in 
which this idiom is used, such as go, rise, fall, become, lay, 
vanish, arrive, depart, etc., but in every case it can be avoid- 
ed by the use of "to have" for "to be." 142. Its proper. 
143.'Mary's. 144. Cain and Abel's. 145. Correct. 146. 
Lying. 147. Who. 148. Saidst, it was I. 149. It to be 



KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 239 

150. § 121. 151. Feet length. 152. Tuke. Lest and 
that, following the imperative mood, require the subjunctive 
form. 153. He being. 154. Thou looking. 155. § 123. 
15G. § 123. 157. The sentence is elliptical, *'that" being 
understood after believed. 158. Whom. 159. § 117. 

160. Correct. 161. People do. 162. It is no more than. 
163. Leaves'. 164. We hoped to see you. See the same er- 
ror corrected in sentence 3d. 165. Were there no difference. 
166. § 130, Note 11. 167. The sentence is grammatical, al' 
though '^ever" is unusccssary. 168. § 97, Note 2d. 169. 
Know, gone. 

170. § 97, Note 3d. 171. There were. 172. Shall the 
throne of iniquity, which frameth mischief by a law, have fel- 
lowship with Thee? 173. Correct. 174. "Or" should be 
changed to ''and." 175. Dress than that. 176. John's. 177. 
I have found in Macaulay only. 178. The transitive verb 
'' confide should be followed by '' to." 179. The intransitive 
verb ''confide" should be followed by "in." 

180. With the copy. 181. I can not accord with you — 
willing to you. 182. Copy from. 183. Copy after. 184. 
Correct. 185. Martyrs for. 186. Die of a disease — by a 
sword. 187. They defended the multitude (others) from. 
188. She defended herself (ourselves) against. 189. Minis- 
ter's do not correspond to each other. 

190. The secretary's opinions are not correspondent with. 
191. Averse to. 192. Call at house — call on your uncle (a 
person) — to reconcile him (person) to you. 193. § 132, Note 
8 til ; differ considerably from. 194. Taste of raspberries- 
taste for the beauties of nature. 195. Reconcile their con- 
duct (thing) with. 196. Are. 197. Are. 198. Bellows are 
— scissors lie — tongs are. 199. What is. 

200. Correct. 201. § 12. 202. § 12, Note 5. 203. Mus- 
selmans. 204. Are. 205. Correct. 206. Have. 207. 
Flown — show^n. 208. Having lain, has 'taken. 209. If ho 
desire it. 

210. If is. 211. Ifs have. 212. Buts, § 12, Note 9. 213. 
§11, Note 1. 214. § II, Note 1. 2i5. § 11, Note 1. 216. 
§ 12, Note 4. 217. § 12, Note 5. 218. Correct. 219. Cor- 
rect. 

220. § 12, Note 8. 221. Correct. 222. § 12, Note 8. 
223. Rule 19, Note 6. 224. § 112, Note 3. 225. § 118. 
226. § 118, Note 2. 227. Were. 228. § 12, Note 9. 229. 
Are. 

230. § 105, Note 5. 231. The crew were drowned. This 



240 KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

crew was an heroic. 232. Need of. 233. ** Among" should 
be between. Agree to the plan — agree with the secretary. 
2SL I differ with you (in opinion). 235. Defend others from. 
Defend ourselves against. Die by a sword. 236. Diminu- 
tion of. 237. From whom was. 238. § 132, Note 9. 239, 
Among. 

240. § 12, Note 1. Is. 241. Youth's. 242. Ten's. 243. 
§ 15, Note 1. 244. § 15, Note 1. 245. Signatwes. 246. 
liaphael's. 247. § 15, Note 1. 248. § 15, Note 1. 249. A 
pardon was offered to him, but, etc. 

250. § 99, Note 5. 25 L Correct. 252. Taller, because 
the superlative degree refers to more than iuo. 253. Admi- 
rably. 254. Are, them. When adjectives preceded by the 
definite article are used to stand iov persons^ they are always 
plural. 255. § 101, Note 12. 256. § 101, Note 12. 257. 
Insert ' Mother." 258. Correctly. 259. Smooth. 

260. § 101, Note 8. 261. Correct. 262. Beautifullv. 263. 
Coldly. 264. Two last. 265. Six feet. 2m. Beautiful. 
The act of looking is not qualified, but the person ; conse- 
quently the adjective " beautiful" is required, and not the ad- 
verb ''beautifully." 267. Deep. 268. This. 269. § 111, 
Note 2. 

270. § 103, Note 6. 271. § 103, Note 6. 272. § 103, 
Note 6. 273. § 103, Note 6. 274. § 103, Note 9. 275. 
§ 103, Note 9. 276. Has. § 109. 277. § 104, Note 1. 
278. That, is. 279. § 111, Note 1. 

280. § 105, Note 3. 281. To do, has little sense. 282. 
§ 105, Note 5. 283. A black and a Avhite horse. 284. § 
105, Note 8. 285. § 106, Note 2. 286. § 106, Note 1. 287. 
§ 105, Note 5. 288. A just, upright, and humane President. 
289. Clearly. 

290. § 105, Note 3. 291. A majority. 292. Its verdict. 
293. Correct. 294. Country's. § 109^, Note 4. 295. Its. 
296. § 109, Note 5. • 297. "To" is understood after guaran- 
tee, and "which" after result, but the sentence is grammati- 
cal. 298. As we. 299. Thee, none but thou wilt. 

300. Than they. 301. § 117, Note 3. 302. Whether he 
wishes it or not. 303. Acknowledge that he did it. 304. 
Correct. 305. Did. Why he did it, himself. 306. § 110, 
Note 5. 307. § 112, Note 2. 308. It is, I think. 309. All 
of vou that are going, step this way. 

310. § 112, Note 3 (d). 311. § 112, Note 3 (e)(6). 312. 
It is he that did it. 313. Rule 20, Note 2. 314. The pen 
with which I write is a gold one. 315. The man with whom 



KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 241 

1 traveled was your brother. 316. And who dictated, etc. 
317. § 112, Note 5. 318. The criminal who committed the 
murder was hun^ by the sheriff. 319. § 112, Note 2. 

320. Kule 19, Note 7. 321. But that. 322. Rule 20, Note 
2. 323. Rule 20, Note 7. 324. § 115. 325. Twice is too 
often. 326. Who not only loves — or, but also loveth his en- 
emies. 327. Both sexes and every age were employed in the 
pursuits of industry. § 103, Note 6. 328. § 117, Note 6. 
329, § 117, Note 5. 

330. Sees. 331. I or my sister goes every day, but I and 
my sister go only once a week. 332. Thou, he, or I have to 
serve ; which of us shall it be ? 333. Thou, he, and I have 
to serve. Truly of us it may be said, *' They are a redoubt- 
able company." 334. I, thou, or he has done it, but which 
of them I can not say. 335. Were. 336. Hu was denied 
admission to the court. 337. I will lay myself, or I will lie 
down. 338. § 123. 339. § 123, Note 2. 

340. § 123, Note 4. 341, Were. 342. If you are. 343. 
If you be here next week I shall see you. 344. Burst, drunk, 
broken, drowned. 345. *'It is mine," said he; "it was 
given." 346. He does not. 347. Omit *'an." 348. Not. 
349. Any more. 

350. § 130, Note 8. 351. Bv exercising. 353. He lives at 
Dedham. 353. On these. 354. At. 355. With. 356. To. 
357. Nor, as foolish. 358. Correct. 359. Not so high. 

360. Correct. 361. Correct. 362. Correct. 363. That 
his friends. 364. Not so great. 365. To fall, lay. 366. § 
130, Note 8, Note 6. 367. Lay. 368. Omit *'more prefer- 
able," and insert *' better." 369. Shine. 

370. Secondly. 371. To be taken. 372. My sister or I 
go — sister and I never go. 373. Had begun, expected to 
arrive, did. 374-376. Omit *'more," the farther, as there 
were, nothing further. 377. Sits. How badly. 378. Gen- 
tleman's heavy ring. 379. Were, sister and aunt were. 

380. An. 381. Durst. 382. Hadst, shaken. 383. Lies. 
384. Me. 385. Thou. 386. Yourselves. 387. Fights. 388. 
Themselves. 389. Yield. 

390. Correct. 391. Wilt. 392. There was. 393. Limb's. 
394. Shalt, friend take. 395. Thou go not. 396. Me (ob- 
ject of '' did create"). 397. There were. 398. When he. 
399. But who. 

400. The juniors (those are) go first. 401. Know. Omit 
**good" and insert great. 402. Was, intimidated by. 403 
§ 112, Note 5. 404. The dryness and heat which have pre- 

Q 



242 KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXEECISES. 

vailed. 405. Is. 406. Blown, jealousies. 407. Equally. 408. 
Who. 409. He who is coming. 

410. All that's, yours. 411. Shall have done. 412. Cor^ 
rect. 413. § 112, Note 3 (e). 414. § 1 12, Note 3 (c). 415. 
Which. 416. § 112, Note 3 («). 417. All that. 418. Who 
that. 419. § 112, Note 3 (&); in which. 

420. § 112, Note 3 (h). 421. It is he that did it. 422. § 
112, Note 3 (c). 423. § 130, Note 2. 424. He said that. 
425. Correct. Any better, any wiser. 427. Do any thing 
quickly. 428. Statement in which. 429. § 133, Note 6-5. 

430. My penmanship is not so good as yours. When the 
equality is denied, **so" is the corresponding conjunction to 
''as.'» 431. § 133, Note 6-4. 432. § 133, Note 6-3. 433. 
§133, Note 6-1. 434. Than they. 435. If I were you. 436. 
§46. 437. §119,r>tel. 438. Correct. 439. Davies's Le- 
gendre's Geometries" covers (meaning the covers of several 
Geometries written by Legendre, translated by Davies). 

440. Davies's Legendre's Geometry's cover. 441. Nor con- 
temn the rich or the great. 442. Has his, severely. 443. 
I who have, intend. 444. Am. 445. Humble, with which 
thou art. 446. Rule 12, these. 447. Given, me. 448. Did, 
saw, to be him. 449. To Phila., at Cincinnati. 

450. Who is. 451. Workmen who need. 452. Sit. 453. 
I drank. 454. He. 455. Omit "it." 456. § 116, Note 5. 
457. Is. 458. Is. 459. Correct. 

460. *' He, "replied the child. 461. Thou. 462. John,Pe- 
ter, and Moses's. 463. § 97, Note 3. 464. Milton's, Dante's 
(pronounced Dan-te). 465. My. 466. Master's. 467. Sen- 
ators', representatives'. 468. § 15, Note 1. 469. Correct. 

470. Is high. 471. And to proceed temperately. 472. 
Resemblance to, has to. 473. Then from what. 474. Us. 
475. And take. 476. § 130, Note 2. 477. § 130, Note 7. 
478. Correct. 479. § 126-1. 

480. § 129-26. 481. Shall have been. 482. Omit "be," 
omit "to." 483. Thee and me. 484. Parliament's. 485. 
England. 486. Ancestor's. 487. § 106, Note 9. 488. Prove 
more likely than any other — or, omit "other." 489. Omit 
"more." 

490. § 118. 491. These. 492. Means. 493. Do. 494. 
But he is. 495. Correct. 496. So far. 497. As deserving 
as. 498. Than the name. The comparative degree requires 
to be followed by than. 499. Correct. 

500. Order that. 501. Persons as. Such requires to be 
followed by as. 502. Than whom. Than is (jenerally fol- 



KEY TO MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 243 

lowed by the nominative, but the relative is always in the ob- 
jective, 503. Than he. See preceding sentence. 504. Sg 
useful, than that quality, omit ''and is," called in common 
language discretion. 505. Correct. 506. If there is but, 
there is no casting vote. 507. When it is scorched. 508. 
After its kind. 509. Rule 19, Note 5. 

510. Wert rescued. 511. This question, "Who are likely 
to get the appointment?" 512. Esteems them. 513. Cor- 
rect. 514. That, I. 

A large number of errors in Syntax occur in the use of 
irregular verbs. To prevent this, pupils should make them- 
selves perfectly familiar with the Table of Irregular Verbs. 
But this will be of little practical good unless the teacher in- 
structs the pupil how these parts of the verb enter into the 
construction of the tenses. To undei -and this, the follow- 
ing statement should be carefully studied. 

The present of the verb is used in the present and first fu- 
ture tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, the pres- 
ent and past tenses of the potential, the present tense of the 
imperative, and the present tense of the infinitive mood, act- 
ive voice. 

The past of the verb is used in the past tense of the indic- 
ative and subjunctive moods, active voice. 

The perfect participle is always used after "^arc," and 
"Aarf," and the verb "io &e," except in the progressive forms 
in which the present participle is used. 



<-i 



PUNCTUATION. 



DEFINITIOK AND RULES. 

§ 138. Punctuation, from the Latin punc- 
turrij a point, is the art of dividing written com- 
position by points or stops, for the purpose of 
marking the different pauses which the sense 
and the pronunciation require. 

THE COMMA ( , ). 

§ 139. The comma (,) denotes the smallest 
division in the construction of sentences on the 
printed page, and the shortest pause in reading. 

Rule I. 

A comma should not come in between the 
subject or nominative and the verb or predi- 
cate; as, ^^ America claimed nothing but her 
independence." 

Exception 1. When the subject of a simple 
sentence is accompanied by several adjuncts, a 
comma should be introduced immediately be- 
fore the verb ; as, *' The injustice and barbarity 
of this censure on all former editors of the New 
Testament, will appear," etc. 

Exception 2. When the connection between 
a subject and the verb is interrupted by one or 
more important words, a comma should be in- 



246 PUNCTUATION. 

serted both before and after them: *^To do 
good, if we have the opportunity, is our duty, 
and should be our happiness." 



EXAMPLES. 

1. The book is the author's pledge to im- 
mortality. 

2. The friend of order has made half his way 
to virtue. 

Exception 1. The weakest reasoners among 
my acquaintance, especially on the subject of 
religion, are generally the most positive. 

Exception 2. His style, in point of grammat- 
ical construction, is open to endless objection. 

Rule II. 

Two or more words in the same construction 
are separated by a comma ; as, ^'Eeason, virtue, 
answer one great aim ;" ^^ We are fearfully, 
wonderfully framed." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. A woman sensible, gentle, well educated, 
and religious. 

2. In a letter, we may advise, exhort, com- 
fort, and request. 

Rule III. 

When words in the same construction are 
joined i\i pairs by a conjunction, they are sepa- 
rated in pairs by a comma ; as, ^' Hope and fear, 
pleasure and pain, diversify our lives." 



PUNCTUATION. 247 



A Cliristian spirit may be manifested either 
to Greek or Jew, male or female, friend or foe. 

Rule IV. 

Expressions in a direct address, the Nomina- 
tive Absolute, the Infinitive Absolute, the Par- 
ticiple Absolute, and words like hence^ besides^ 
firsts are separated by commas from the body 
of the sentence; as, *^Come hither, Hubert;" 
" His father dying, he succeeded to the estate ;" 
*^To do her justice, she was a good-natured, 
reasonable woman ;" '' Properly speaking, he is 
guilty of falsehood;" "Besides, the issue is 
doubtful;' 

EXAMPLES. 

1. John, will you obtain the work from the 
library ? 

2. The city being taken, we fortified it with 
great care. 

3. To speak confidentially, he has ruined 
himself 

Rule V. 

Nouns in Apposition, when accompanied 
with adjuncts, and Nouns attended by Partici- 
ples or Adjectives with dependent words,. are 
separated by a comma; as, ^^Paul, the Apostle 
of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and 
knowledge;" "The king, approving the plan, 
put it in execution ;" " But he, anxious to refer- 
the cause to arbitration, refused." 



248 PUNCTUATIOI^. 



EXAMPLES. 

1. That distinguished patriot,BenjaminFrank- 
lin, was at the court of St. Cloud. 

2. Humboldt, the great philosopher, resides 
at Berlin. 

Rule YI. 

When sentences contain correlative words, 
and have each a nominative and a verb express- 
ed, they are separated by a comma; as, '^Bet- 
ter is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a 
stalled ox and hatred therewith." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. As virtue is its own reward, so vice is its 
own punishment. 

2. How much easier is it to go with the pop- 
ular current, than it is to oppose public opinion! 

Rule VII. 

Words placed in opposition to each other, or 
with some marked variety, require to be distin- 
guished by a comma; as, ^^ Though deep, yet 
clear; though gentle, yet not dull." 

examples. 

1. The goods of this world were given to 
man for his occasional refreshment, not for his 
chief felicity. 

2. It is the province of superiors to direct, 
of inferiors to obey. 



PUNCTUATION. 249 



Rule VIII. 

A remarkable expression or short observa- 
tion, somewhat in the manner of a quotation, 
should be marked with a comma ; as/^ It hurts 
a man's pride to say, I don't know." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Yice is not of such a nature that we can 
say to it, Hitherto shalt thou come, and no far- 
ther. 

2. We are strictly enjoined, "not to follow a 
multitude to do evil." 

Rule IX. 

Eelative Pronouns generally admit a comma 
before them, except when closely connected 
with the antecedent ; as, " He preaches sublime- 
ly, loJio lives a sober, righteous, and pious life ;" 
" Self-denial is the sacrifice, which virtue must 
make." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The gentle mind is like the still stream, 
which reflects every object in its just propor- 
tion and in its fairest colors. 

2. He, who is good before invisible witnesses, 
is eminently so before the visible. 

Rule X. 

When an Infinitive Mode or a sentence is a 
subject, but is placed after the verb it has gen- 
erally a comma before it. 



250 PUNCTUATION. 



EXAMPLES. 

1. It ill becomes good and wise men, to op- 
pose and degrade one another. 

2. Charles's higliest enjoyment, was to relieve 
the distressed and to do good. 

Rule XI. 
"When a verb is understood, a comma may 
often be properly introduced; as, ^^From law 
arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from 
curiosity, knowledge. '^ . 

EXAMPLES. 

1. If spring put forth no blossoms, in sum- 
mer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no 
fruit. So if youth be trifled away without im- 
provement, manhood will be contemptible, and 
old age miserable. 

2. As a companion, he was severe and satiri- 
cal ; as a friend, captious and dangerous ; in 
his domestic sphere, harsh, jealous, and irasci- 

RULE XII. 

Adverbs and adverbial . phrases, in certain 
constructions, are followed by a comma, and, in 
some cases, are also preceded by a comma; as, 
" First, I shall state the proposition, and, sec- 
ondly, I shall endeavor to prove it." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. On the other hand, be not self-confident. 

2. His high reputation, undoubtedly, contrib- 
uted to his success. 



PUNCTUATION. 251 

Rule XIII. 

A simple member of a compound sentence 
must be distinguished by the comma; as, "To 
improve time while we are blessed with health, 
will smooth the bed of sickness." 

If, however, the members of a compound sen- 
tence are very closely connected with each oth- 
er, the comma is unnecessary ; as, " Eevelation 
tells us how we may obtain happiness." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. If we delay till to-morrow what ought to 
be done to-day, we overcharge the morrow with 
a burden which belongs not to it. 

2. If the wind sow not corn, it will plant this- 
tles. 

Rule XIV. 

When a verb is expressed in one member of 
a compound sentence, and understood in anoth- 
er member, its place in the latter is supplied by 
a comma ; as, " The wise man considers what 
he wants; the fool, what he abounds in." 

examples. 

1. Passion overcomes shame ; boldness, fear ; 
and madness, reason. 

2. War is the law of violence; peace, the 
law of love. 

THE SEMICOLON (;). 

§ 140. The Semicolon is placed between the 
members of a sentence which are not so closely 



252 PUNCTUATION. 

oonnected as those wliicli are separated by a 
comma. 

1. A semicolon is put between two parts of 
a sentence when these are divided, according to 
the preceding rules, into smaller portions. 

2. A semicolon is placed between two clauses, 
one of which is explanatory of the other. 

8. Short sentences slightly connected are sep- 
arated by a semicolon. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Life with a swift, though insensible course, 
glides away; and, like a river which under- 
mines its banks, gradually impairs our state. 

2. Be not hasty in thy spirit to be angry; 
for anger resteth in the bosom of fools. 

3. We may compare the soul to linen cloth ; 
it must be first washed to take off its native hue 
and color, and to make it white ; and afterward 
it must be ever and anon washed to preserve 
and keep it white. — South. 

THE COLON (:). 

§ 141. The' Colon is used to divide a sen- 
tence into two or more parts, less connected 
than those which are separated by a semicolon, 
but not so independent as separate distinct sen- 
tences. 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete 
in itself, but followed by some supplemental re- 
mark or farther illustration of the subject, the 
colon is used ; as, '* A brute arrives at a point 
of perfection that he can never pass : in a few 



PUNCTUATION. 253 

years he has all the endowments he is capable 
of; and were he to live ten thousand more, he 
would be the same thing that he is at pres- 
ent." 

2. When a semicolon, or more than one, has 
preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary 
in order to mark the connecting or concluding 
sentence; as, *'As we perceive the shadow to 
have moved along the dial, but did not perceive 
it moving; and it appears that the grass has 
grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so 
the advances we make in knowledge, as they 
consist of such insensible steps, are only per- 
ceivable by the distance." 

8. The colon is frequently used when a quo- 
tation or a speech is introduced; as, ^^I admire 
this sublime passage : ^ God said. Let there be 
light, and there was light.' " 

EXAMPLES. 

1. For the training of goodness, the ancient 
reliance was on the right discipline of habit 
and affection : the modern is rather on the illu- 
mination of the understanding. 

2. When we look forward to the year which 
is beginning, what do we behold there ? AH, 
my brethren, is a blank to our view : a dark 
unknown presents itself. 

3. All our conduct toward men should be 
influenced by this important precept: ^^ Do unto 
others as you would that others should do unto 
you." 



254 PUNCTUATION. 

THE PERIOD (.). 

§ 142. The Period marks the completion of 
the sense in declarative sentences ; as, ^' World- 
ly happiness ever tends to destroy itself by cor- 
rupting the heart. It fosters the loose and the 
violent passions. It engenders noxious habits, 
and taints the mind with false delicacy, which 
makes it feel a thousand unreal evils.'^ 

The period should be used after abbrevia- 
tions; as, A.B., Dec, Mr., etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Self-control is promoted by humility. Pride 
is a fruitful source of uneasiness. It keeps the 
mind in disquiet. Humility is the antidote to 
this evil. 

2. Thought engenders thought. Place one 
idea on your paper, another will follow it, and 
still another, until you have written a page. 
You can not fathom your mind. There is a 
well of thought there which has no bottom. 
The more you draw from it, the more clear and 
fruitful it will be. 

NOTE OF interrogation (?). 

§ 143. The Interrogation Point at the 
close of a sentence denotes a question. 

<^ 

EXAMPLES. 

1. When shall you return from abroad? 

2. Can our curiosit}^ pierce through the cloud 
which the Supreme Being hath made impene- 
trable to mortal eye ? 



PUNCTUATION. 255 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT ( ! ). 

§ 144. The Exclamation Point is used after 
sudden expressions of surprise, and after invo- 
cations and addresses; as, ''How are the mighty 
fallen!" 

. When the interjection oh is used, the point is 
generally placed immediately after it; but when 
is employed, the point is placed after one or 
more intervening words ; as, 

** Oh ! my offense is rank, it smells to heaven." 
**But thou, O Hope ! with eyes so fair." 

EXAMPLES. 

1. To lie down on the pillow after a day spent 
in temperance, how sweet is it! 

2. Gripus has long been endeavoring to fill 
his chesty and lo ! it is now full. 

OTHER POINTS AND MARKS. 

§ 145. The Parenthesis ( ) includes a re- 
mark or clause not essential to the sentence, 
but useful in explaining it; as, *' Every planet 
(for God has made nothing in vain) is most 
probably inhabited." 

§ 146. Brackets [ ] inclose a word or sen- 
tence which is to be explained in a note, or the 
explanation itself, or a word or sentence which 
is intended to supply some deficiency or rectify 
some mistake; as, "He [Mr. Canning] was of 
a different opinion." 

§ 147. The Dash ( — ) marks a break in the 
sentence, or an abrupt transition ; as, " There 



256 puNCTUATioisr. 

was to be a stern death-grapple between Might 

and Eight — between the heavy arm and the 

ethereal thought — between that which was and 

that which ought tohe^ ^' If thou art he — ^but 

oh how fallen!'^ 

§ 148. The Caret (A) denotes that some 

word or letter has been left out in writing ; as, 

last 
"I called to see him /\ night." 

§ 149. The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used to de- 
note the abbreviation of a word ; as, His for it 
is. Its chief use is to, mark the genitive case 
of nouns; as, ^'John's hat." 

§ 150. The mark of Accent (' or ') is placed 
over a syllable to denote a particular stress of 
the voice which is required in the pronuncia- 
tion. The first is called the Acute accent^ and is 
in use. The other is called the Grave accent^ 
and is not much in use in the English language. 
The two united (^) is called the Circumflex, 

§ 151. A Hyphen ( - ) is employed in. con- 
necting compounded words; as, ''Lap-dog;" 
'' to-morrow." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and 
the former part is printed or written at the end 
of one line, and the latter part at the beginning 
of another. In this case it is placed at the end 
of the first line, and not at the beginning of the 
second. 

§ 152. The mark for the long vowel ( " ) is 
used by being placed over it, as in ''Eosy." 
The mark for the short vowel C ) is used in 
the same manner, as in ''Folly." 



PUNCTUATION. 257 

§153, The DiiERESis (•°) consists of two 
points, wliich are placed over one of two vow- 
els whicli would otherwise make a diphthong, 
and parts them into syllables ; as, ^' Creator ;" 
^^ aerial." 

§ 154. The Paragbaph ( ^ ) denotes the be- 
ginning of a new topic. This character is chief- 
ly used in the Bible. 

§ 155. The Section ( § ) denotes the division 
of a discourse or chapter into less portions. 

§ 156. Quotation Marks (^' ") denote that 
the wprds of another are introduced ; as, "Hope 
springs eternal in the human breast." 

§ 157. The Index or Hand (^") points 
out a remarkable passage. 

§ 158. The Ellipsis ( "^^^^ or ) denotes 

the omission of some letters or words ; as, K — g 
for king ; c*^^-^-^*'^!! for captain. 

§ 159. The Asterisk (■^*), the Obelisk (f ), 
the Double Dagger (:{:), and Parallels ( || ), 
together with Letters and Figures, are used 
as references to the margin or bottom of the 
page. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

§ 160. In ancient manuscripts capital letters 
only were used, which followed one another 
without being divided into words by spaces or 
into sentences by points. At a later period, 
nouns always commenced with a capital, as is 
the practice now in the German language. In 
the use of capitals in the English language, 
there is some diversity in the practice of v/rit- 
ers and printers. 

E 



258 PUNCTUATION. 

The following classes of words usually begin 
with capital letters : 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, let- 
ter, or any other piece of writing ; also the first 
word after a Period ; also the first word after 
an Interrogation point, or an Exclamation point, 
if it closes an independent sentence ; also the 
first word of every line of poetry ; also the first 
word of a formal quotation ; as. Remember the 
ancient maxim : '^ Know thyself." But for an 
informal quotation a capital is unnecessary ; as, 
Solomon remarks '' that pride goes before de- 
struction" of places. 

2. Proper names ; Adjectives derived from 
proper names ; titles of honor and distinction ; 
and Common Nouns personified : New York ; 
Roman ; General Scott ; Alexander the Great ; 
'' There Honor comes a pilgrim gray." 

3. Words used as the names of the Deity ; 
as, God, Jehovah. 

4. Every substantive and principal word in 
the title of books ; as, *' Pope's Essay on Man." 
The title-page of books, the pronoun /, and the 
interjection 0. 

Other words besides the preceding may be- 
gin with capital letters when they are emphati- 
cal, or the Principal Subj ect of discourse. Italic 
letters are used for distinguishing words and 
phrases which are emphatic. 



THE END« 



PARSES AND ANALYZEE 

FOR BEGINNERS, 



WITH 

DIAGRAMS AND SUGGESTIVE PICTUllES. 

/ 

Br FRANCIS ArMARCH, LL.D., 

PB0FES80R OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPAKATIVE PUILOIi- 
OGY IN LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, AUTUOR OF "METHOD OF PHIL- 
OLOGICAL STUDY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE,'* " COM- 
PARATIVE GRAMMAR OF THE ANGLO- 
SAXON LANGUAGE,' ETC. 



JVjEJV YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
188I0 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by 

HaKPEB & BROTnEKS, 

In th« Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for 
ihii Southern District of New York. 



PREFACE. 



This book is made so as to train the pupil 
to see, hear, and think, as well as to remember 
rightly. The briefest accurate definitions and 
rules are given ; the rest is problems which the 
pupil is to solve, and so work out the meaning 
and application of the definitions and rules. 
The exercises should be handed in on a slate or 
paper ; then each pupil should go to the black- 
board and work out a part anew, and recite it 
from the board. The teacher should give abun- 
dant illustrations and explanations. To hear 
them fresh from living lips is a difierent thing 
from struggling through them in print. Minute 
directions to teachers will, however, be found 
all along. 

The pictures furnish common objects to name 
and describe. 

The diagram analysis will be found easy, 
stimulating, helpful every way. Most of the 
forms are like those which Professor R. S. Storrs, 
of Hartford, has worked out in teaching deaf- 
mutes. Teachers who use this book will join 
me, I am sure, in thanks. 

The work is progressive. If it goes hard, re- 
view. Haste is waste. A live teacher may well 
find in two chapters enough for a first term. 



IV PREFACE. 

Persons familiar with Professor S. W. Clark's 
Grammars will recognize the close resemblance 
of the system of diagrams in this book to that 
in his "English Grammar for Beginners" and 
" Normal Grammar." The use of the diagrams 
in this book is by his permission. 



ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS AND 
ABBREVIATIONS. 

[The figures refer to the page.] 



a&s.=:ab3olute, TO. 
ac?. =active, 71. 
a.=adjective, 11-15, 24. 

clause, 62, 74. 
ady.=:adverb, 26,28,80. 

clause, 62, 70, 76, 78. 
analyze, meaning of, 30. 
antecedent, 74. 
apostrophe, 9. 
apjj.— appositive, 76, TS. 
a/f.=zarticles, 15. 
«.<?, 76. 

ai.zziattributive, 24, 28. 
auxiliaries, 44. 

he, 39-50, 62, 63, 69-78. 

c.=rcardinal, 13. 

case, nominative, 9, 30, 32, 64, 70. 

objective, 9, 31, 34, 68. 

possessive, 9, 30, 33. 
clause, 57, VI. 
collectives, 58. 
combinations, 28. 
c.=:iCommon, 3, 5. 
c— comparative, 12, 26. 
compound perfect, 69. 
conj.mconj unction, 57, 62, 78. 
conjugation, 38-78. 
c.=co-ordinate, 57-61. 
c.=copulative, 20, 32, 58. 
correlative, 57. 

dative, 34. 
declension, 30-33. 
d6/.=:definite, 15. 
tZe'm'.=demonstrative, 14. 
dis.r=distributive, 14. 
doy 68. 

emphatic verb, 68. 

factitive, example of, 81. 
/.=feminine, 4. 
finite, 20, 30. 
fut.=:futuTe. 44, 74. 
fuL perf.=f\iture perfect, 49, 74. 
prom. =promissive, 45, 74. 

gender, 4, 5. 

im23.i=:imperative, 52, 64, 78. 



i/?d.i=indefinite, 14. 15, 78. 
md.z^indicative, 38-52, 7i-74. 
mdgp.=:independent, 64, 8(». 
i»/.z:ziufinitive, 52, 66, 78, 82, 
i?ii.=:iinterrogative, 33. 

verb, 68. 
i>i^.=interjection, 80. 
i.r=:intransitive, 20. 
ir.=::irregular, 42, 46. 

m.=zmasculine, 4. 

7?.r=neuter, 4. 

nom. =:nominative, 9, 30, 32, 64, 70. 

n.=noun, 1-9. 

wt«w.=numeral, 13. 

number, 6, 38, 53. 

o&j.izrobjective, 9, 28, 31, 34, 68, 80. 

without a preposition, S3, 86. 

predicate, 68. 

double, 81. 
o.r^ordinal, 13. 

p.=rparticiple, 46, 52, 69, 78. 
parse, meaning of, 30, 
pass.=passive, 71-78. 
pasf,40-43, 54, 63, 69, 76. 
past per/. , 48, 56, 71 , 74, 76. 
2?er/.=perfect, 46, 55, 71, 74, 76, 78. 
person, 8. 

p.rrpersonal, 8, 31. 
pZ.:ir plural, 6, 58. 
p.=:positive, 12. 
j30SS.=:possessive, 9, 30, 33. 
pof.=potential, 52-56, 76. 
i?red.=predicative,18, 24, 26, 28 32, 

68. 
prep.zzrpreposition, 34. 
pre.9.=present, 38, 39, 53, 62, 69, 71, 

76, 78. 
principal parts, 46. 
pr.=pronoun, 8, 31. 

pronominal adj., 14. 
jt9.=proper, 3. 
progressive verb, 71. 

rec.=reciprocal, 14. 
reflexives, 31. 
re^.=regular, 40. 
j'.=:relative, 74. 



vi CONTENTS. 



sentence, 18, 57. 

.s.=:singular, 6, 58. 

mbj, —suhiect, 18, 22, 30, 58, 76. 

of infinitive, OS. 

of participle, 70. 
«u&?.=subiunctiv'e, 52, 62, 78. 
s.=subordinate, 62, 70, 74, 78. 
substantive clause?, 62, 78. 
s.=::superlative, 12. 



tha7i, 62, 84. 
thaU 14, 74, 78. 
i. intransitive, 20. 

i;.— verb, 20, 38-78. 
voice, 71. 

ivhat, 78. 

yes, 80. 



DIAGKAMS. 

Signs, predicative ( ( ), 18 ; quasi-predicative ( ; ), 65, 68, 70, 81 ; attri^ 
utive (— ), 22, 24; objective (V), 20 ; dative (\), 34; adverbial (=), 26, 
34; words supplied ( () ), 58. For the parts of speech, use the tormet 
table. For connection of clauses, co-ordinate, 57 ; subordinate sub- 
stantive, 78, 79, 82, 84 ; adjective, 75, 86 ; adverbial, 63, 70, 84 ; quasi, 
65, 68, 70, 80, 81. 

Mary smiled. John ran, 18. Fairies are pretty. lie caught me, 20. 

A cross boy is bad, 22. A teacher likes cheerful faces, 24. 

A really good teacher likes cheerful faces very much, 26. 

It is she, 82. Whose book is that ? 33. 

Men of money give it to us with caution, 34. 

Frank will tell us, 41. He had taken his son to Parir!, 48. 

He should run to a doctor, 54. I saw and I conquered, 57. 

Mary and I married early, 58. 

Washington was first in war and first in peace, 59. 

New York is a great and growing city, 59. 

Slie sang clearly and sweetly. The house is pleasant in summer and 

winter. The mother of Frank and Mary lives there, 60. 
I saw Cain and Abel's mother. I saw Cain's and Noah' tj mother. Bread 

and butter is good, 61. 
No man can be great unless he toil greatly, 63. 
Try it again, John, if you fail, 65. 
He came to fish. He begins to weep, 66. 
He is able to work. To live is sweet, 67. 
I wish them to be men, 68. He came up, running, 69. 
She running, he ran. When she ran, he ran, 70. 
He who works, wins. He whom we love will love us. What id tiie end 

for Avhich you toil ? 75. 
Cicero, the orator, spoke with fluency, 77. 
I see what it is. I saw that he wept, 78. 
What is right is expedient. Go, that you may see. It is true that he 

died, 79. 
O, let me go. Cry Oh, 80. I teach him Greek. Make us men, 81. 
I was asked What is best. It is hard to die. To know thyself is hard, 82. 
Right means straight. This man is worth millions, 83. 
The general said, IJp, boys ! Good eyes are better than glasses, 84. 
There was a castle called Doubting Castle, 85. 
There was a castle the owner whereof was a giant, 86, 
Run like a deer, 86, 



PARSER AND ANALYZER. 



CHAPTER I. 

NOUNS. 
LESSON FIRST. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 3.J 

Introductory Exercise without Book. 

1.— Teacher. A noun is a name of a person, place, or thing. Is door 
a noun ? 

Pupil. Door is a noun. 

Teaches. Why do you call it a noun ? 

Pupil. Because it is a name. 

Teacher. What ia it the name of? Point out a door! 

[The pupil should be made to go to the door and touch it, or at least direct 
his eye and finger toward it ; and so in each of the following.] 
2, — ^Teacher. Is window a noun ? Why ? Point it oat I 
3.— Teacher. Is desk a noun? Why? Point it out ! 
4. — Teacher. Is chair a noun ? Why ? Point it out 1 
5. — Teacher. Is through &, noun ^ 

Pupil. Through is not a noun. 

Teacher. Why not ? 

Pupil. It is not a name of any person, place, or thing. 

Te^\ciier. Can no one point out something called a through t 

6 Teacher. Is hook a noun ? Why ? Show me a book ! 

7. — Teacher. Is of a noun ? Why not ? Show me an of! 
8. — Teacher. Is finger a noun ? Why ? Show me a finger! 

9 Teacher. Is and a noun ? Why not ? Show me something called 

an and ! 
10. — Teacher. Is hand a noun ? Why ? Show me a hand ! 

For the next lesson, learn by heart the large print at the beginning of 
Lesson Second, and write on your slates the answers to all the ques- 
tion^. I shall ask you to tell me ivhy^ tind point o?//, just as I havo 
to-day. 



2 THE NOUjST. 

LESSON SECOND. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 3.] 

A NOUN is a NAME of a person, place, or thing. 

1. Which of these words are nouns : door^ window^ through^ 




ear^ of, finger ? Write them one under another, and put 
after each n. for noun. 

2, Write three nouns, names of things used in school. 

3, VVhicli are nouns of these : finger, yet, hook, is, thumb, 
eye, from? 

4, VVrite three nouns, names of 
parts of the head. 

T). Write three nouns, names of 

articles of dress. 
C. Which are nouns of these : 

shoes, over, under, hair, had, 

with, chin ? 

7. Write three nouns, names of , _ , 
things to be pointed out in the __^--r^PL#^'''ll 
picture at the right. ~ 

8. Which are nouns of these : 
wedge, up, down, hammer, stiun]), swifts is. 

9. Write three nouns, names of parts of the hand. 

10. Write three nouns, names of persons in school. 

11. Which are nouns of these: finger, thumh, was, mallet, 
if palm, fist ? 

12. Write two nouns, names of parts of a door. 

13. Write two nouns, names of parts of a window. 

14. Which are nouns of these : hinge, from, pane, sash, on, 
chin, panel, yet, hook? 




COMMON NOUN, PROPER NOUN. 



LESSON THIRD. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 4, IGO.] 
{Review each, day, orally, the lesson of the day before.) 

A COMMON noun is the name of each of a 
kind. 

A PROPER noun is an individual name. It 
should begin with a capital letter. 

TEiVCHER's Questions I. Is door a noun? Why? A common or 

proper noun? Why? What kind of thing is a door? [(Jse a dic- 
tionar3% if nec3ssary.] II. Is London a noun? Why? A common 
or proper noun ? Why ? Does it tell the kind of place ? 

1. Which of the following are common nouns, and which 
proper: doo7% London, tlirough^ Charles^ out? Write them 
one under another. Put 
after each n. c. for 7ioun 
common, or n.p, for nou7i 
proper, 

2. Write five proper nouns, 
names of places you 
would like to see. 

3. Which are common 
nouns, and which prop- 
er nouns of these : ham- 
mer, ivas, Washington, over, iv edge, father, is? 

4. Write nouns for names of three persons you like. 

5. Write five common nouns, names of round things. 

G. Which are common, and which proper of these : book, 
slate, eye, from, man, 
Boston, icedge, shoes, 
yet, thumb, London ? 

7. Write five nouns, 
names of things you 
like to eat. 

8. Write three names of 
rivers. 

9. Write five nouns to be 
pointed out in the pic- 
ture at the right from 
1 Samuel, xvii. , 34, 35. 

10. Write nouns for five 
persons in the Bible. 





THE GENDERS. 



LESSON FOURTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 6.] 

There are three genders: the masculine^ 
the feminine, and the neuter. 

Names of males are masculineX ■ 
Names of females are feminine. 
Names of things without sex are neuter. 

Teaoiikr's Questions. — Is father a noun? Why? A common or 
proper noun? Why? Of what gender? Why? Ang.— Because 
it is the name of a male. 

L Write the masculines in the following: father , mother, 
door, is, Charles, boy. Write m. for masculine. 

2. Write the feminines and 
neuters in the following : 
lady, Mary, Charles, 
sister, over, London. 
Write f. for feminine, 
n. for neuter. 

3. Write neuters from 
these : finger, yet, hook, 
rock, hoy. 

4. Write the masculines 
from these : uncle, aunt, 
hushand, icife, Charles, 
London, lion. 

5. Write three feminine 
names of persons j^ou 
know. 

G. Write three masculine 
names of persons you 
know. 

7. Write three neuter 
names of things you like. 

8. Which of these are neuter, and which masculine : loife, 
hushand, beau, belle, book, had, over, Charles ? 

9. Write three feminine nouns not proper names. 

10. Write three feminine nouns not names of persons- 

1 1 . Which of these are feminine : aunt, boy, lioness ? 

12. Write the gender of these: David, book, belle, finger, 
brother, house, shoe, father, mother. 




THE COMMON GENDER. 



LESSON FIFTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 7.] 

A n^un which sometimes means a male, and 
sometimes a female, is of common gender. 

TEAcnEs's Questions. — Is ^jare^ij^ a noun? Why? A common of 
proper noun? Why? Of what gender? Why? Ans. — It may 
mean a male or a female. 

1. Which of these are of common gender: parent^ father^ 
animal, child, uncle, cousin? Write c. for common, 
thus: hazent, '7t. c. c. . -^,-.— _— ...^^^ 

2. Write a masculine, a 
feminine, and a com- 
mon noun suggested 
by the picture. 

8. Write the masculine of 
aunt, sister, daughter, 
bride, madarn. 

4. Write the feminine of 

king^ lion, master, i^riest, ^ 
husband, 

5, Write the masculine of ^^-/ 
niece, girl, woman, lass, ^^p 
mother, lady, widoiv. ^ ' 

f>. Write the feminine of boy, gentleman, brotl 

7. Write three proper _ 

names of persons in 
the picture from 1 Sam- 
uel, xviii. , 1 7. 

8. Write two nouns of 
common gender which 
may be applied to per- 
sons in the picture. 

9. Write three common 
nouns, masculine, 
which may be applied 
to persons in the pic- 
ture. 

10, What gender have 

these: king, parent, 1 Samuel, xviii., 17. 

child, son-in-law, father, sir, grandmother, deacon, cousin, 

goose ? 





SINGULAR NUMBER, PLURAL NUMBER. 




LESSON SIXTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 8.] 

There are two numbers : the singular and 
the plural. 

The singular number means but one. 

The plural number means more than one. 
It is formed by adding s or es to the singular; 
a few words add en, a few change the vowel. 

Teacher's Questions.— Is sistej- a noun ? Why ? Common or proper ? 
Why? Gender? Why? Number? Why? Ans.— It means but 
one ? 

Write the singular nouns among these : sister, parent, 
son. Write s. for singular. 
Write the plurals among these : 
hooks, fingers, thumb. Write /;/. 
for plural. 

Write three plural names of things 
in the school-room. 

Write three plural names of things you like to eat. 
Write the plurals of these : door, cloud, jnan. 
Write two singulars from the picture from 2 Corinth- 
ians, xi., 33. 

Write two plurals from 
the picture. 

Write three masculine 
plurals. 

Write the plurals of the 
feminine of these : boi/, 
lord, husband. 
Write three plural arti- 
cles of dress. 
Which of these have 
no plurals: gold, fish, 
7nan, coffee, cattle, rice? 
Which of these have 
no singular: scissors, 
clothes, geese, ashes, 
tongues, pence, spoon- 
fuls, spectacles? 



10. 
11. 

12. 




^' And through a window in a basket 
was I let down by the wall, and escapecl 
his hands."— 2 Corinth., xi,, 33. 



13. 
14. 



Write the plural of these : man, boy, ox, box, mouse. 
Write the plural of these : woman, brush, child, ox. 




MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 7 

LESSON SEVENTH. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

[The pupil should now be made to read and describe his nouns without being queation- 
ed. KxAMPhK.— Book is a noun, because it is a name ; a common noun, because it 
is a name of a kind ; of the neuter gender, because it means no sex ; the singular 
number, because it means but one. the letters for noun, common or proper, gender, 
and number, should be written with every noun.] 

1. Write and describe the nouns among these : book, through, 

door, of, window. 

2. Write three nouns, names of parts of 
the head. 

3. Write three nouns, names of things 
you like to eat. 

4. Write the nouns among these : shoes, over, wedge, hair, 
is, up, yet, finger. 

5. Write three names of cities. 

6. Write three names of persons in the Bible. 

7. Write three names of articles of dress. 

8. Write three names of places you have seen. 

9. Write the nouns among these : wedge, from, mallet, was, 
hinge. 

10. Write three nouns, names of wooden things. 

11. Write two nouns, names of parts of a door. 

12. Write three common nouns, names of persons you like. 

1 3. Write three nouns that have no plural. 

14. Write as many nouns as you can that have no singular. 

15. Write as many nouns as you can whose plural ends in en. 
IG. Write the feminine of king, hoy, brother, ox. 

1 7. Write the plural of child, goose, mouse, ox. 

18. Write the masculine oi niece, girl, aunt, daughter. 

19. Write as many nouns as yoa can, names of things in the 
picture in Lesson Second. 

20. Write the nouns among these : loife, over, Charles, beau, 
belle, yet, is, under, was, if lion. 

21. Write as many nouns as you can that have no plural. 

22. Write the singular of these : brethren, brothers, pennies, 
pence, geese, men, cows, kine, teeth. 

23. Write as many nouns as you can, names of things in the 
picture in Lesson Third. 

24. Write as many nouns of the common gender as you can 
that will apply to objects in the pictures in Lesson Fifth. 

25. Write as many proper nouns as you can that will apply 
to objects in the picture in Lesson Sixth. 

26. Write the nouns in 2 Corinthians, xi., 33. 



8 



PERSON. 



LESSON EIGHTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 5, 37.] 

The FIRST PERSON denotes the speaker. 

The SECOND PERSON denotes the person 
spoken to. 

The THIRD PERSON denotes the person or 
thing spoken of. 

ij we^ ihou^ you^ he^ slie^ it^ they^ are PERSONAL 

PRONOUNS. 

Teachkr' 8. Questions. — On the sentence, "J called John.''*— Is I a 
noun? What is J.? Ans. — A personal pronoun. Q. — Of what per- 
son? Ans.' — The first person. Q. — Why? Ans. — It denotes the 

speaker. Q. — What is Johnf Ans John is a noun^ because it is 

a name; a proper noun^ because it tells no kind ; of the masculine 
Cjznder^ because it is the name of a male; of the singular number^ 
because it means but one. Q What person? Ans. — Third per- 
son. Q. — Why? Ans. — Because it denotes a person spoken of. 

L Write the nouns and pronouns in the following: I called 
John. Write ;??'. for pronoun^ and 1 st for Jirst person^ 2d 
for second j)erso?i, and Sd for third person^ thus : 



^OMi, n. h. y?i 



?c/. 



2. Write the nouns and pronouns in the following: He is called 

William. Htm, hoys ! 

3. Write the nouns and 
pronouns in the follow- 
ing: Natha7i said unto 
David, Thou art the 

4. What person have the ll^.rll^^^H^H^^KwMfe 1 ' 
nouns and pronouns in 
this : /, John, eat ap- 
ples ? 

5. What person have the 
nouns and pronouns in 
this : You, girls, keep 
quiet ? 

6. What in this : 7, Victoria, Queen of England ? 

7. Write the person and number of these : /, he, loe, they. 

8. Write the person and number of these : She, you, it, thou. 




CASE. 



LESSON NINTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 13.] 

Nouns have three cases : the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

Nominative and objective forms are alike. 

The possessive adds s with an apostrophe be- 
fore it, but to plurals in s an apostrophe only. 

1. Write the possessives of John, kings, man. Example: 

fodn a, o^. ^z. m. d. 3c/. ^. 
Q/t-CTigd- , n. c. 77t. he. S(/. h. 

2. Write the possessive singular of hoy, girl, lion, brother. 

3. Write the possessive 
plural of lion, man, king, 
cow, 

4. Write the possessive of 
two names of objects in 
the picture. 

5. Write the feminine pos- 
sessive of lion, uncle, 
man. 

C. Which of these are pos- 
sessives : mother^ s dar- 
ling, bahy^s fingers, 
mamma's hand, wives, 
wife's, flies, fly s?^ 

7. Write the possessives 
of three nouns, names 
of things in the second 
picture. 

8. Which of these are 
singular possessives : 
hoys'' noise, girl's talk, 
king's- palace, mens 
boots, hoy's shoes ? 

9. Write the plural pos- 
sessive of child, ox, 
brother, wife, fly. 

10. Write both the singu- 
lar and plural possessives of^^', w?ye, man, king, mother. 




10 ADJECTIVES. 



CHAPTER II. 

ADJECTIVES. 
LESSON TENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 17-19.^ 

Intkoductoky Exekcise. 
1.— Teaches. An adjective is added to a noun to describe or define th« 

person, place, or thing named. Is Uack an adjective? 

Pupil. Black is an adjective. 

Teacher. Why so ? 

Pupil. Because it can be added to a noun to describe, something. 

Teacher. What noun ? Point out something black. 

Pupil. John's hair is black. 

Teacher. Can you point out any thing else that black describes ? 

Pupil. The stove is black. 

Teacher. Any thing else ? 

Pupil. Your boots are black. 

Teacher. Any thing else ? Point out every thing you can which is 
described as black. 
2. — Teacher. Is white an adjective ? Why ? Point out something which 

ivhite describes. 
3. — Teacher. — Is small an adjective? Why? Point out things which 

are small. 
4. — Teacher. Is though an adjective? 

Pupil. Though is not an adjective. 

Teacher. Why not? 

Pupil. It does not describe or define any thing. 

Teacher. Can no one point out a though thing ? 
5 Teacher. When I say several men^ is several an adjective? 

Pupil. Several is an adjective. 

Teacher. Why? 

Pupil. It describes or defines men. 

Teacher. Does it describe, or does it define ? 

Pupil. It defines. 
6.— Teacher. Is pretty an adjective? Why? Point out something 

Avhich you call prettT). 
7.— Teacher. Is strong an adjective? Why? Point out something 

strong. 
8.— Teacher. Give me an adjective which will describe the doorl 

Pupil. Wooden. 

Teacher. Another! 

Pupil. Oblong. 

Teacher. Another! 



i 



ADJECTIVES. 11 

LESSON ELEVENTH. 

An ADJECTIVE is added to a noun to de- 
scribe or define. teacher's questions.— see Lesson Tenth- 

1. Which of these are adjectives : black, hut, strong, pale, 

small, through, white ? Write them with a. for adjec- 
tive. Example ; c/acd, a. / dhona, a. 

2. Which of these are adjectives : little, to, round, several, 

indeed, wooden, hut, oblong ? 

3. Write three adjectives describing an ink- stand. 




4. Write three adjectives describing the dog in the picture. 

5. Which of these describe Washington : brave, cowardly, 

firm, mean, punctual, truthful, careless, wise ? 

6. Write three adjectives describing the school-room. 

7. Write three describing the boy in the pictm-e. 

8. Write three describing the to\\Ti you live in. 

9. Which of these describe Benjamin Franklin: wise, fool- 

ish, hind, temperate, cross, drunken, diligent, lazy ? 

10. Write three adjectives describing a hat. 

11. Write three describing the old man on page 9. 

12. Write three describing the boy in the same picture. 

13. Which of these are adjectives: man, good, geese, best, 

hajjpy, pretty, is, drunken ? 

14. Write and describe the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives 

among these : wife, is, bad, children, noisy, oxen, niece^ 
king, brightest, you, they, happy, he, better, 

15. Write three adjectives describing a boy. 

16. Write three describing a cat. 

17. Write three describing the man on page 3. 

B 



12 COMPARISON. 

LESSON TWELFTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 20-27,] 

There are three degrees of compakison : 
tlie positive, the comparative, and the superla- 
tive. 

The positive describes simply. 

The comparative describes as having more 
of a quality. 

The superlative describes as having most of 
a quality. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Wise, Wiser^ Wisest. 

Learned, More learned^ Most learned. 

Irregular Forms. 

Good, Better.^ Best. 

Bad, Worse, Worst. 

Much, many. More, Most. 

Little, Less, Least. 

Teacher's Questions. — T. Is iviser an adjective? Why? Of what 
degree of comparison? Why? Ans. — It describes as having more 
wisdom. II. Compare it. Ans. — Positive, wise; comparative, 
wiser; superlative, wisest. 

1. Which are adjectives of these : wiser, strong, bravest ? 

Write p. for positive, c. for comjiarative, s. for superla- 
tive. Example : zt/t^ez, a. c. / <^hona, a. h. 

2. Of what degree of comparison are these: brave, firmest, 

bad, less, ivorst? 

3. Write three superlatives describing George Washington. 

4. Write three superlatives describing New York. 

5. Write three superlatives describing the town in which 

you live. 

6. Of what degree of comparison are these : more foolish, 

most temperate, meanest, greater ? 

7. Write two adjectives comparing the persons in the last 

picture on page 9. 

8. Write three superlatives describing something you like 

to eat. 

9. Write three adjectives describing an ink-stand. 

10. Write three adjectives describing the persons in the 

second picture on page 5. 

11. Write the comparative and superlative of little, good. 



NUMEKAL ADJECTIVES. 



13 



LESSON THIRTEENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 28.] 

Numerals express number. 

Cardinals define how many: one, tivo^ko,. 

Ordinals define ivhich: first, second, &c. 

Teacher's Questions. — On ^^ three mm.'" — What is three? Why an 
adjective? Does it describe or define tnen? What kind of adjec. 
tive? Why? Cardinal or Ordinal? Why? Ans.— It tells how 
many. 

1. Which of these are numerals : three men, great, Jive, sev- 
enthy over, second. Write num. for numeral, c. for car- 
dinal, 0. for ordinal. 



nzee, a. nu7n. c, 
fcz^e, a. nt^m. c. 



devenih, a. nu77i. o. 
zeconc/, a. num. &. 



2. Which of these are numerals: eiglit, very, second, hundred, 
under, one ? 

3. Write the numerals to tell how many th.cre are in your 
class, and which in or- 
der you are. 

4. Write three nouns, 
names of things in the 
picture, and the nu- 
merals telling how 
many of each you see. 

6. Put a numeral and a 
descriptive adjective 
with these : hoys, girl, 
hoop, branches, ball. 

6. Compare each of the '"" 
adjectives you wrote 
for 5. 

7. What numeral will de- 
fine the hands seen on page 9 ? The eyes ? 

8. Write two names of objects on page 8 to which the nu- 
meral three applies. 

9. Write the ordinal for eight, two, twenty. 

10. Write the cardinal iox fiftieth, first, second, thirteenth. 

11. Write the cardinal and ordinal for the year, the month, 
and the day of the week. 

12. Describe ten, black, hand, Charles, first, tioo. 







14 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

LESSON FOURTEENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 18, IV.] 

Demonstratives define specifically. 

They are this, that^ these^ and those. 

Indefinites define generally. 

They are some^ one, none^ all^ amj^ such^ other, another. 

Distributives define objects to be taken 

SmgJy. They are each, every, either, neither. 

Reciprocals define as mutually related. 

They are each other, one another. 

When demonstratives, indefinites, distribu- 
tives, or reciprocals define a noun, they are 
called pronominal adjectives. 

Tkaoiier's Questions. — On ^'•some Jwiises.''* — What is some? Why an 
ftfijective ? Does it describe or define houses f What kind of adjec- 
tive? Ans, — An indefinite pronominal adjective. Q. Why? Aks.— 
It points out indefinitely. Q. Repeat the indefinites. 

1. AVhich are pronominal adjectives of these : some houses, 
each house, every man? Write dem. for demonstrative, 
ind. for indefinite, dis. for distributive, rec. for reciprocal. 

dO?ne, hi. ci. tna. ; eacn, fit. a. did. 

2. Write and describe each of the following Avords : such 
good hoys, these four 
men, every two birds. 

3. Write two nouns, 
names of objects in the 
picture, and a demon- 
strative with each. 

4. Write two distributives 
with names of objects 
in the picture. 

5. Write a demonstrative, 
a superlative, and noun, 
to describe something 
in the picture; 

6. Describe these : all those creatures, that greedy bird, those 
brightest feathers. 

7. Write a demonstrative, a comparative, and noun, to de- 
scribe something in the picture. 

8. Write and describe these : either animal, one happy bird. 




ARTICLES. 



15 



LESSON FIFTEENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 32-84.] 

An or A is an indefinite article : it marks one 
object, but not which one. An is used before 
a vowel sound, A before a consonant sound. 

The is a definite article : it points out some 
definite object. 

Teachek's Questions.— What is an? Why? Ans. — It marks one 
object, hut not which one. 

1. Write and describe the following : a good man, the bad 

hoy, 

a, i4i(/, az^. €ne, c/efi. ai^. 

Qooa, a. h, t>ac/, a. fi. 

77ian, n. c. '?7t. d. toy, n. c. 77i. d, 

2. Describe by an article, adjective, and noun, the figure in 

the first picture on page 5. 

3. Describe by an article, adjective, and noun, each of the 

figures in the second picture on page 5. 

4. Describe by the 
numeral five, { \ n^ \ ) ? 

- \ \ ) 



adjec- 
and a 




three 
tives 

noun, some- 
thing in the 
picture at the 
riglit. 

5. Write as many 

nouns as you i 
can, names of \ 
objects in the ^^ 
picture at the 
right. 

6. Write an arti- 

cle and adjec- 
tive with each 
of the nouns 
in the answer 
to question 5. 

7. Describe George Washington by an article and adjective. 



16 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

8. Describe New York by the definite article, three superla- 

tives, and a noun. 

9. Describe your school-room by the indefinite article, three 

adjectives, and a noun. 

10. Write and describe the following: the wisest man^ the 
greatest city^ a large room. 

U. Describe the persons in the picture on page 8, by a nu- 
meral, an adjective, and noun. 

1 2. Write and describe the following ; child^ a, wife, noisy ^ 

you, the, niece, an, them, king, brightest. 

13. Write and describe the following: better, more, Jive, hap- 

py, seventh, hopeful, most virtuous, a, the, you, pretty. 



LESSON SIXTEENTH. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

[The pupil should now be made to read and describe, without questions, his nouns and 
adjectives, both descriptive, numeral, and pronominal, and his articles. The proper 
letters, fully describing each word, should be written after each. Compare l)age 7. 
Examples. — I. Wise is an adjective, because it describes a noun ; of the positive dejrree, 
because it describes simply — positive, wise; comparative, wiser; superlative, wisest. 
II. Three is an adjective, because it defines a noun ; a numeral, because it denoted 
number; a cardinal, because it tells how many. III. l^hat is an adjective, hec&usA 
it defines a noun ; a demonstrative pronominal adjective, because it de^nes specif* 
ically. IV. An is an indefinite article, because it marks one object, but not which 
one.] 

1. Which of these are adjectives: three bright boys, those 
Jive eggs? 

2. Describe these : baby^s two little Jin gers. 

3. Write three superlatives describing New York. 

4. Write the feminine of boy, gentleman, lion, husband. 

5. Write three superlatives describing George Washington. 
C). Write three adjectives describing the school-room. 

7. Compaj'e brave, temperate, much. 

8. Write three adjectives describing the boy on page 9. 

9. Write three names of objects in the picture on page 1 5/ 
and numerals telling how many of each you see. 

1 0. Which are nouns of these : Jinger, hair, over, chin, desk^ 
is, bad? 

11. Comipsire foolish, good, bad, hopejul. 

1 2. Write the plm-al feminine of these : boy, lord, master. 

13. Write the plural masculine of these : woman, wife, auni^ 
belle. 

14. Write the ordinal for seven, tivo,Jive, one. 

15. Write three superlatives describing London. 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



17 



to. Write three adjectives describing the dog on page 11, 

17. Write three neuter names of things you like. 

18. Write adjectives describing three things you like. 

19. Write three nouns of the common gender. 

20. Write three proper nouns, not names of persons. 

H. Write and describe these: the good boy, a better man^ 
six little Indians, 

22. Write two distributives with names of objects in the pic- 
ture on page 8. 

23. What person have the nouns and pronouns in this : Na-- 
tJian said unto David, Thou art the man ? 

21. Which of these are singular possessives : boy^s noise, 
girls^ talk, wife s, lions'' ? 

25. Write the plural possessive of the feminine of these : boy, 
husband, lord, brother, uncle, priest, lion. 

2Q, Write a demonstrative, a superlative, and a noun to de- 
scribe persons in the second picture on page 5. 

27. Put a numeral and descriptive with three nouns suggest- 
ed by the picture on page 14. 

28. Write the singular and plural possessives of wife, man^ 
ox, king, fly, 

29. Write three common nouns masculine which may be ap- 
plied to persons in the second picture on page 5. 

«?0. Write and describe a man, noisy, niece, seventh, prettiest, 
such, any, 
every, the 
greatest 
man, 

tl- Write and 
describe 
two mon- 
keys, that 
mischiev- 
ous mon- 
key, that 
painted 
monkey, 
painters^ 
paint, the 
painter^s 
brushes, 
the old 
mimic. 




18 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



CHAPTER in. 

LESSON SEVENTEENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ S3, 94.] 
Intkoductoby Exercise. 
4. J.-^tTCACHEE. When we talk sense, we make sentences. The subject 
is tehai which is talked about. ^'-JoJm whispered.^^ What is 
the subject? 
Pupil. John, 
Teacher. Why? 

Pupil. John is that yhich is talked about. 
2. — TEXcumi. ^'' Mary jmiled.*^ What is the subject? Why? 
3. — Teacueh. '''• Charles whistled," What is the subject ? Why? 
A 1. — Teacher. That which is adid of the subject is called the predi. 
cate. What is the predicaa it, " rjharies whistled T* 
Pupil. Whistled. 
Teacher. Why? 

Pupil. That is what is said of Charles. He whistled. 
2.— Teacher. What is the predicate in '^t/t,Ji?i nohisperedV^ Why? 

3 Teacher. What is the predicate in '•''Mary smiltd P' Why ? 

4. — *''' Birds fly,''* What is the subject? Why? The predicate? 
Why? 



LESSON EIGHTEENTH. 

A SENTENCE is a thought in words. 

The SUBJECT is what is talked abouu 

The PEEDICATE is what is said of the subject. 

Teacher's Questions — See Lesson Seventeenth. 

1. Which of these are sen- 
tences : Mary smiled, 
John over, John ran ? 
Write the subject at 
the left, and make a di- 
agram like these. 

2. Which of these are sen- 
tences : John coughed, girls ivhisj:ter, is over, time flies, 
bright sun, he she it, under he f 

3. Write a word about each of these : dogs, horses, bojjs, 

4. Write a word as subject for shine, shout, roar, 

5. Write a predicate for lions, bears, dogs, cats. 



fy/b^aAA^/ 


^^PyTZC^^oi, 


^/on^TTy 


yLoy^^iy. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 19 

6. Write a predicate word for steam-engines. 

7. Write a predicate word for stars, 

8. Write a subject for whisper. 

9. Write a subject for giggle. 

10. Write a subject for grumble. 

1 1 . Write a predicate word for pigeons. 

12. Write a subject for stagger. 

13. Write a subject iorjiy. 

14. Write a predicate word for drunkards. 

15. Which of these are sentences: high on a throne^ men 

worh^ stars shine, twinkle over^ little stars, seasons change f 

16. Write a subject for twinkle. 

17. Write a subject for chatter. 

18. Write a predicate word ioY foxes. 

19. Write a predicate word for ducks. 

20. Write a subject for swiju. _ 

21. Write a predicate word 
for ships. 

22. Write a subject for hoiul. 

23. Write a predicate word , 
for waves. 

24. Write a predicate word j 
for storms. 

25. Write a subject for sail. 
2Q. Write a subject for toss. 

27. Write a subject for sc«« J. 

28. Analyze Masts bend. 

29. Analyze Sails swell. 

30. Write a predicate for 
winds. 

81. Which are sentences of these: ivaters roar, the midst oj 
the sea, mountains shake, storms arose, streams where^ 
of? 

32. Write a predicate word for billows. 

33. Analyze Captains command. 

34. Write a subject for fear. 

35. Write a subject for coo. 

36. Analyze Men think. 

37. Analyze Birds fly. 

38. Analyze Fishes swim. 

39. WMte a sentence in two words about ships, 

40. Write another about sailors. 

41. Write another about clouds. 




20 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



LESSON NINETEENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 48-51.] 

A VERB predicates. 

To predicate is to add a predicate to a subject to assert, ask, suppose, or command 

A COPULATIVE VERB predicates an adjective 



or noun. 

Such are am 



; are, was, were, seem, appear, is called, etc. 



An INTRANSITIVE VERB denotes a complete 
act or state. 

A TRANSITIVE VERB denotes an act as affect- 
ing some object 

All verbs are called ^n?Ve except infinitives and participles. 

Teacher's Questions. — I. ^'Fairies are pretty^ What is the sub- 
ject? Why? The predicate ? Ans Are 2>retty. Why? Ans. — 

It is said of the subject. Q. — Which word is tlie verb ? Ans. — Are. 
Q. — Why? Ans. — It predicates prei^^Z* Q — What kind of verb? 
Ans. — A copulative verb. Q. — Why? Ans. — It predicates an ad- 
jective. Q.—Wh&,t is pretty ? Why? II. '■'• John whistled.'' The 
subject? Why? Predicate? Why? Verb? Why? What kind? 

Ans. — Intransitive. Q Why? Ans. — It denotes a complete act. 

III. ^^ Charles caught John.'' Q.— Subject? Why? Predicate? 
Why? Verb? Why? What kind? Why? Ans— It denotes an 
act as affecting an object (John). 

1 . Write the sentences among these : fairies are pretty^ he 
caught me, next she. Put a copulative verb with its pred- 
icate adjective or noun. For an object, extend the lower 
line, write the object under it, and mark with v, as below. 



fj^kuk'Ced 



/ct^e 



e ^^e/^^. 



y<i^XCC^/L^ 



2. Analyze Grass grows, men make ^ "^^Z^* 
hay. 

3. Analyze these : monkeys are mischievous, monkeys mimic. 

4. Write three sentences about the picture on page 17, using 
a copulative, an intransitive, and a transitive verb. 

5. Analyze these : life seems short, man is immortal 

6. Write a transitive predicate for wedges, page 2. 

7. Analyze these : he struck me, he is brave. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 



21 



8. Analyze Snow looks white. 

9. Write a predicate with a copulative verb for stars. 

10. Write a predicate v^ith an intransitive verb for stars. 

11. Analyze Storms wreck ships. 

1 2. Write a predicate with an intransitive verb for storni&» 

13. Analyze Men are strong. 

14. Write a predicate with a transitive verb for men. 

15. Analyze Lions look frightful. 

16. Write a predicate with a transitive verb for lions. 

17. Write a predicate with an intransitive verb for lions. 

18. Analyze Life is short. 

19. Write a predicate with an intransitive verb for life, 

20. Analyze Bears frighten hoys. 

21. Write a predicate with a copulative verb for hears. 

22. Write a predicate with an intransitive verb for hears. 

23. Analyze Grapes are 
sweet. 

24. Analyze Grapes taste 
sweet. 

25. Write a predicate with 
a copulative verb for 
pomegranates. 

2G. Write a predicate with 
an intransitive verb for 
grapes. 

27. Write a predicate with a 
copulative verb for figs. 

28. Analj^ze Foxes eat 
grapes. 

29. Analyze Bears love hon- 
eij. 

30. Analyze Boys love fun. 

31. Write a subject for look happy. 

32. Write a subject for are wretched. 

33. Which of these are sentences : grapes of EshcoL they 
hrought clusters^ as true as truth, fruit is pleasant ^ 

34. Analyze Man is called mortal. 

35. Write a subject for is holy. 

36. Write a subject for killed thousands. 

37. Write a subject for henefited thousands. 

38. Analyze Caesar grew great. 

39. Which are sentences of these : Hope cheers, anger de- 
grades, the raging sea, for ever and ever? 




Grapes and Poinegraniitcs. 



22 LOGICAL AND GliAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 



T 



x<^ 



^yb 



x:Aad^ 



LESSON TWENTIETH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 93.] 

The LOGICAL SUBJECT is the WHOLE naming 
of what is talked about. 

The GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT IS the leading 
NOUN in the logical subject. 

Teacher's Questions.— On '' A cross boy is bad.'^ What is the sub« 
ject? Ans.— J. cross boy. Q.— Why? Is it the logical or gram- 
matical subject? Why ? Ans. — It is the whole naming of what is 
talked ahoiit. Q. — AVhat is the grammatical subject? Why? Ans. 
— It is the leading noun in the logical subject. 

1. Analyze A cross 
boy is had. Write 
the Grammatical 
Subject in the up- 
per line, as in 
Chapters XVIIL 
and XIX., and 
write adjectives in the Subject separate below, marked — . 

2. Analyze this : The sky is blue. 

3. Analyze this : The harvest is ready. 

4. Analyze this ; Falling drops ivear rocks, 

5. Analyze this : Two boys make noise. 

G. Analyze this : The good great man has friends. 

7. Analyze this : True friendship is eternal. 

8. Analyze this : The fairest rose fades. 

9. Analyze this : North winds kill fruit. 

10. Look at the picture on page 13, and write a numeral and 

noun for the subject of is visible ; of are 

lively, 

11. Write a predicate for George Washington, 

12. Write a predicate for A pretty bird , 

from page 15. 

13. Write a predicate for A nolle dog , 

from page 1 1 . 

1 1. Analyze A strong man struggles. 

15. Write and analyze a sentence suggested 

by the picture. 
IG, Write one suggested by the picture on 

page 3. 

1 7. Write one for each picture on page 5. 

18. Analyze The Nile fertilizes Egypt. 




LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 23 

f9. Analyze The stars shine. 

20. Analyze The snow looks ivhite, 

21. Analyze A lion is terrible. 

22. Analyze The longest life is short. 

23. Analyze Ripe grapes are sweet. 

24. Write a sentence with a copulative verb about green 
grapes. 

25. Write a sentence with a copulative verb about sudden 
storms. 

26. Write a sentence with a transitive verb about sudden 
storms. 

27. Analyze Haste makes ivaste. 

28. Analyze The cunning /ox catches chickens. 

29. Write a sentence wdth a copulative verb about the grizzly 
bear. 

30. Write a sentence with a transitive verb about the grizzlij 
bear. 

31. Analyze Your hat Jits me. 

32. Analyze Good books are friends. 

33. Write a predicate for little stars. 

34. Write a subject for croics. 

35. Analyze The lazy lad 
sleeps. 

36. Write a sentence VN^ith 
a copulative verb about 
the lad in the picture. 

37. Write a sentence with ' 
an intransitive verb 
about the tree in the 
picture. 

38. Write a subject for 

grow tall. 

30. Write a predicate 
rank weeds. 

40. Analyze An idle 
causes shame. 

41. Analyze A diligent son causes gladness. 

42. Analyze A foolish looman is clamorous, 

43. Write a subject for shines. 

44. Write a subject for cackles. 

45. Write a subject for giggles. 

46. Write a predicat&i^r A merry heart. 

47. Analyze A sad heart tiresy 




24 



ATTKIBUTIVE. — PREDICATIVE. 



LESSON TWENTY-FIRST. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 101.] 

An ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE is part of the 
NA^MiNa of some person, place, or thing. 

A PREDICATIVE ADJECTIVE is ASSERTED of 

some person, place, or thing. 

Teacher's Questions. — On '•'•A cross boy is bad.^* What is the logical 
subject? Why? The grammatical? Why? Parse cross. (See 

Lesson 16.) Is it attrib'utive or predic'ative ? Why? Ans It is 

part of the naming of a person. What is the predicate ? Why ? 
What is is ? Why ? What is bad ? Why ? Is it attrib'utive or 
predic'ative ? Why? Ans. — It is asserted of the subject. 

Analyze A teacher likes cheerful faces. Write attrib'u- 
tive adjectives under the nouns thej describe. 



1. 



y/e<xcA^iy yCi^/ted 



^ 



'€4. 



/C^e€4Ji^u 



2. Analyze The oak is a great tree. 

3. Analyze A good tree bears good 
fruit, 

4. Analyze Good hooks are dear friends. 

5. Write a sentence 
suggested by the 
picture. • 

6. Write a sentence 
Avith Frankllii for 
its subject and 
great as an attri- 
butive adjective. 

7. Write a sentence 
with Franklin for its subject and great as a predicative 
adjective. 

8. Write sentences using these as predicative adjectives : 
blue., noisy., pretty. 

9. AVrite sentences using these as attributive adjectives: 
true., fairest., blue. 

10. Analyze Cheerfidness is the best cure. 

11. Analyze The elephant fears the serpeiit. 

12. Analyze We have five senses. 




ATTRIBUTIVE. — PKEDICATIVE. 



25 



13. Write a sentence with red as an attributive adjective. 

14. Write a sentence with red as a predicative adjective. 

15. Analyze A wise son makes a glad father. 

16. Analyze A foolish son makes a sad mother. 

17. Write a sentence with the superlative oi happy as a pre- 
dicative adjective. 

18. Write a sentence with the superlative of merry as an at- 
tributive adjective. 

19. Anal3^ze Washington ivas a punctual jnan. 

20. Analyze All truthful men are punctual. 

21. Write a subject for a firm man. 

22. Write a subject for a diligent man. 

23. Analyze Those children are noisy. 

24. Analyze He ate all those apples. 

25. Analyze The good great man has three firm friends. 

26. Write a sentence with the plural of the feminine of hoy 
for its subject. 

27. Analyze That man hums __ 

hrush. 

28. Analyze Brush - heaps 
make a bright fire. 

29. Write a sentence with 
stirs for its verb. 

30. Write a sentence about 
the picture with a pre- 
dicative adjective de- 
scribing the pole which 
the man is using. 

31. Write a sentence with 
an attributive adjective 
describing the same 
pole. 

32. Write a sentence with an attributive adjective describing 
the fire. 

33. Write one with a predicative adjective describing the fire. 

34. Write one with a copulative verb about the man. 

35. Write one with an attributive adjective describing the 
man. 

36. Analyze Fire is a good servant, 

37. Analyze Fire is a hard master. 

38. Write a sentence with round used predicatively. 

39. Write a sentence with round used attributively. 

40. Write a sentence describing something with eight corners. 




26 LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 



LESSON TWENTY-SECOND. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 94, 83.] 

The LOGICAL PREDICATE is the WHOLE that 

is said of the subject. 

The GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE is the finite 
VERB in the logical predicate. 

An ADVERB modifies a verb, adjecitve, or 
other adverb. Some adverbs may be compared. 

Tkaciikr's Questions. — On '''•Bo^s run fast y The subject? Why? 
Predicate? A^b.— Run fast. Q. — Why? Logical or gram -latic 
al? Why? Ans. — It is the whole that is said of the subject. Q. — 
What is the grammatical predicate? Why? What is fast f Why? 
Compare. Ans. — It modifies the verb run— /as?, fustei\fas!esL 
1. Analyze A realhj good teacher likes cheerful faces very 
much. AViite an adverb under the word it modifies, and 
mark it =. 



y^^^acfCe^^ yCiJie^ 



^l 



31 



yOK>0</y 



I^ 



./ 



J<JUi.eJ. 



A&aoo^ 



yiz-cM^ 



3E 



/cJii 



10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 



Analyze A good tree hears regularly. 

Analyze Washington forgave bravely. 

Analyze The horse trots briskly. 

Analyze The sun sinks slowly. 

Analyze The snoiv half covers the fences. 

Analyze Good hooks are very pleasant companions. 

Analyze Franklin ivas a very shreivd thinker. 

Write a sentence from the picture about sleighing, with 

an adverb in it. 

Write a sentence with an adverb in it about the horse. 

Analyze The hear defends her young courageously. 

Analyze £>ark ivoods cause often involuntary awe. 

Write sentences with these adverbs : warmly , cheerfidiy, 

rapidly. 

Write sentences with these adverbs : always, sometimes. 



MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



27 



15. Analyze A very strong dog carried the drowning hoy 
ashore. 

16. Analyze A noble dog saved a drowning hoy, 

17. Analyze Washington was a good great man, 

1 8. Analyze The sky is very blue, 

19. Analyze A cross hoy troubles his teacher. 

20. Wi'ite sentences with these verbs : ride^ shines^ is, seems, 

21. Write sentences with these adjectives: noisy, brave, 
loisest, oldest, dear, good. 

22. Write a sen- 
tence in five 
words about 
the sleigix in 
the picture. 

23. Write a sen- 
tence in four 
words about 
the horse in the 
picture. 

24. Analyze The 
good great man 
has three firm 
friends. 

25. Analyze The 
north winds kill 
the fruit, 

20. Analyze Fall- 
ing drops wear 
away rocks. 

27. Analyze Girls 
whisper too much. 

28. Write a sentence about the sun in the picture. 

29. Write a sentence about the man on the front seat in the 
picture. 

30. Write a sentence about the road in the picture. 

31. Write a sentence about the clouds in the picture. 

32. Write a sentence about the trees in the picture. 

33. Analyze Thou art the man. 

34. Analyze The mischievous monkey painted another monkey. 

35. Write the plural of man, hook, child, beau. 

36. Write the feminine of brother, lion, king, man, hoy. 

37. Write the masculine of lady, widow, aunt, mother, 

38. Analyze Sleighing is fine fan. 

C 




28 THE SIMPLE COMBINATIONS. 

LESSON TWENTY-THIED, 

Words make four simple combinations^ the 
predicative^ attrih'iitive^ objective^ and adverbial, 

A subject makes a predicative combination with its verb. 

A verb makes a predicative combination with its subject. 

A predicate noun or adjective makes a predicative combi* 
nation with its subject. 

An attributive adjective or expression makes an attributive 
combination with its noun or pronoun. 

An object of an action makes an objective combination 
with the verb which governs it. 

An adverb or adverbial phrase makes an adverbial combi- 
nation with the word it modifies. 

Hereafter, in explaining diagrams, the teacher may ask of every word 
what it combints v/itii, and the kind of combination. 

Teacher's Questions. — I. On '''■Some hoys are very slow.* Questions 
as before in parsing and analysis. Also Q — What does boys com- 
bine with? Ans. — With arc, Q What kind of combination? 

Ans. — Predicative. Q. — Rule? Ans. — A subject makes a predica- 
tive combination with its verb. Q. — What does are combine with? 
Ans.— With hoys. Q. — What kind of combination? Ans. — Pre- 
dicative. Q Rule? Ans. — A verb makes a predicative combina- 
tion with its subject. Q. — What does slow combine with ? Ans 

With hoys. Q.— What kind of combination? Rule? Ans A 

predicate *noun or adjective makes a predicative combination with 
its subject. Q. — What does sOiME combine with? Kind of combi- 
nation ? Rule ? Ans. — An attributive adjective or expression makes 
an attributive combination with its noun or pronoun. Q. — What 
does VERY combine with? Kind of combination ? Rule? Ans. — 
An adverb or adverbial phrase makes an adverbial combination 
with the word it modifies. II. On '''-He struck wr." Questions on 
he and struck as before. Q. — What does me combine with ? Kind 
of combination ? Rule? Ans. — An object of an action makes aa 
objective combination with the verb which governs it. 

1. Analyze Stars twinkle. 

2. Analyze The planets shine. 

8. Analyze The little stars twinkle, 

4. Analyze Fishes swim swiftly. 

5. Analyze The sun shines brightly, 

6. Analyze Heroes are brave. 

7. Analyze The clouds look black. 

8. Analyze The gropes are sweet. 

9. Analyze Desolation surrounds us. 

10. Write a sentence in Avhich sweet makes a predicative 
combination 




THE SIMPLE COMBINATIONS. 29 

11. Write three names of things you saw before coming to 
school this morning, and make a predicative combina- 
tion with each. 

1 2. Write three sentences with the same names in objectivQ 
combinations. „^ 

13. Analyze Palaces crum- 
ble, 

14. Analyze A single col- 
umn still stands. 

15. Analyze I still live. 
10. Analyze The sun (jilds 

the gray ruins. . 

17. Write a sentence with 
an adverbial combina- 
tion suggested by the 
picture. 

18. Analyze Time wastes all 
things. 

39. Write a sentence with 

an^ objective combination suggested by the picture. 

20. Analyze Greece is no more. 

21. Analyze Ruins are. beautiful. 

22. Analyze Mary loots very fair. 
23 AnJilyze She ate all those apples. 

24. Analyze A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

25. Analyze Falling drops wear away rocks. 

26. Write sentences using queer in as many kinds of conibi-' 
nation as yon can. 

27. Write sentences using love in as many kinds of combi- 
nation as you can. 

28. Write sentences using very in as many kinds of combi- 
nation as you can. 

29. Analyze The good man is firm. 

30. Analyze The good man alone is tridy wise. 

31. Write a predicative combination with diligence. 

32. Write a sentence using punctual in a predicative combi- 
nation. 

S3. Write sentences using Washington in as many kinds of 
combination as you can. 

34. Write sentences using bright in as many kinds of combi- 
nation as you can. 

35. Write a sentence with the four combinations about the 
column in the picture. 



30 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

LESSON TWENXr-EOUKTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 14.] 



The SUBJECT of 


a finite verb is pat in the 


NOMINATIVE case. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Nominative Book, 


Books. 


Man, Men. 


Possessive J3ooIcs, 


Books'. 


Mans, Men^s, 


Objective Book, 


Books. 


Man, Men. 


Nominative Fli/, 


Flies. 


Fox, Foxes. 


Possessive Fli/s, 


Flies'. 


Fox's, Foxes'. 


Objective Fly. 


Flies. 


Fox, Foxes. 



Tkaciieii's Q-jestions. — As before. Also have every noun decliued 
throughout, and the»rule given for the case of every subject. Here- 
after, whea told to parse in the examples, the pupil should write the 
words in a vertical column, with abbreviations to describe them, as 
taught in the first sixteen lessons. When told to analyze, do it in 
diagrams, as in Lessons XVIII.-XXII. 

J. Parse Good books live long. Write v. c. for copulative 
verb ; v. i. for intransitive verb ; v. t. for transitive verb ; 
adv. for adverb ; nom. for nominative case ; subj. for sub* 
ject ; at. for attributive ; pred. ioY predicative, 

ip-ooa, a. ^i. al^. 
^oon-s, n. c. n. fu. 3c/, 'iioJii. ^uOi, 
tci/e, iA. t, 
U}7i^, ac/z^. 

2. Parse All men die. 

3. Analyze A fox is a cunning animal. 

4. Parse Boys read books. 

5. Parse A fly buzzed. 

6. Parse Mice like cheese. 

7. Parse An ox gored a child badly, 

8. Parse A bad man beat his wife. 

9. Analyze Men are all brethren. 

10. Parse Tailors use scissors. 

11. Parse The tailor used a goose. 

12. Parse An old beau fancies a young belle. 



DECLENSION" OF PRONOUNS. 



31 



LESSON TWENTY-FIFTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 38.] 

The Personal Pronouns are /, ihou^ he^ sJie, lU 



First Person'. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. 7, We. 

Po.-s. My or Mine^ Our or Curs. 
Obj. Jfe, Us. 



Second Peeson. 
Singular. Plural. 

Thou.^ Ye or Yov^ 

Thy or Thine^ Your or Yturs. 
Thee^ You. 



Reflexives are myself .i thyself., Jdriisrlf^ herself., itself., ourselves, etc 

The DIRECT OBJECT of a verb is put in the 
OBJECTIVE case. 

Teacher's Questions. — On "J love ?;otf." The subject? Why? 
What part of speech? Name the personal pronouns. Of which 
person is J.? Why? Decline it. What case? Ans. — The nomi- 
native singular. Q. — Why? Give the rule, Ans. — The subject 
of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. Q. — What is the 
predicate? What part of speech is youf Name the personal pro- 
nouns. Which person is you ? Why ? -Decline it. What case ? 
Anb. — Tlie objective plural. Q — Why? The rule. Ans. — The 
direct object of a verb is put in the objective case. 

1. Parse / saw the moon. Write ohj. for ahjective case, 
pass, for possessive ; tieat possessives like adjectives in 
the diagrams. 

2. Parse Noise troubles mc, 

3. Parse We live fast. 

4. Analyze Thou hatest sin. 

5. Analyze You deceived 
me. 

6. Parse Your hat Jits me. 

7. Parse My coat fits you. 

8. 'PsiYse Books instruct us. 

9. Analyze Ye are doomed. 
10. Analyze Joy aioaits 

thee. 
] 1 . Parse A mouse hit me. 

12. Analyze Our hopes de- 
lude us. 

13. IlQXSq David took SauTs 

cruse. 

14. Parse David took SauTs sj)ear. 

15. Parse He struck me. 

16. Parse Your life is merry. 

17. Parse Our favorite hooks wclcowe us. 

18. Analyze The crescent moon liyhts us. 




1 Siimuel, xxvi. 12. 



32 



LESSON TWENTY-SIXTH. 



[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 96, 38.] 

A PREDICATE noun denoting the same per- 
son or thing with its SUBJECT, agrees with it in 
case. 






It is I ; it is we. 






It is YOU ; it 


IS HE. 






It IS THEY ; 


t IS SHE. 




Masculine. 
Norn. He, 
Poss. His, 
Obj. Him, 


Personal Pronouns. 
Singular. 
Feminine. 
She, 

Her or Hers, 
Her, 


Third Person. 

Neuter. 

Its. 
It. 


Plueal. 

All Genders. 
They. 

Their or Theirs. 
Them. 




Teaoiieu's Questions. — On '•'•It is 7." Questions on the subject and 
verb as before. What part of speech is I? Name the personal 
pronouns. Which person? Why? Decline. What case? Why? 
Aiss. — A predicate noun denoting the same person or thing with its 
subject, figrees with it in case. Q. — Repeat the formula. Ans. — It 
is I, it is WE. It is you, it is he. It is they ; it is she. 

1. Parse It is 
I. Write 
p7^ed. for 
predicate. 

2. Parse It is 
he. 

3. Analyze It 
is she. 

4. Parse Time 
is moneij. 

5. Parse It is we. 

6. Analyze It is he. 

7. Parse He is a noble mam 

8. Analyze An honest man 
is a noble man. 

9. Analyze It is you. 

10. Parse /a?/^ Samuel. 

11. Parse It is they. 

12. Parse Knowledge 
power, 

13. Analyze It is they. 

1 4. Parse It ivas I. 

15. Parse Books teach us. 

1 6. Parse He likes me. 

17. Analyze It was he. 

18. Parse It was a very good 
man. 

19. Parse I am thy servant. 



yf^ yfi^. 




DECLENSION. — INTERROGATIVE. 



S3 



LESSON TWENTY-SEVENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 97,45.] 

The POSSESSIVE case describes a noun 
telling whom or what it belongs to. 



by 



The iNTEREOGATivE PRONOUNS are who, which^ and what. 

Sinji:. and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

Noni. Who, Which. What 

Poss. Whose, Whose, is not 

Obj. Whom, Which, declined. 

In interrogative sentences the subject often follows the verb. 
Teacher's Questions. — On '* John's hat." Parse Johii^s. (See Lea- 
sons Seventh and Twenty-fourth.) What case? Give tlie rule, 
Ans. — The possessive case describes a noun by telling whom or what 
it belongs to. Q. — What noui> does it describe? Ans. — Hat. 

Anal^^ze Whose hook is that f Treat the possessive as 
an adjective. 



y^n^z^^ 



.^ 



~=F~ 



Analyze Whose 
voice is that f 
Analyze It is 
John's voice, 

4. Parse Who is 

that ? 

5. Parse It is I. 

6. Parse Whose hat ivas 
that r 

7. Analyze It was Johns~ 
hat. 

8. Parse Whose - father 
was Israel? 

9. Parse Whose son ivas ., 
Joseph f 

10. Analyze JosepKs coat 
had many colors, 

11. Analyze Joseph' s/ather 
loved him. 

12. VeiYseWho was Joseph's 
father ? 

13. Parse Who were Jo- 
sephs brethren? 

14. Analyze Joseph fed his father s flock. 

15. Analyze Joseph's brethren fed his fond father s flock, 

1 6. Parse Who struck whom ? 

1 7. Parse It was he. He struck me. 




Genesis, xxxvii. 3. 



S4 



DECLENSION". — PREPOSITIONS. 



LESSON TWENTY-EIGHTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 86-87.] 

The OBJECTIVE case may be governed by a 

PREPOSITION. 

A preposition governs an objective case, and shows its re- 
lation to some other word in its clause. In analysis it is 
merely a sign of the combination between these two words. 

Such are at, after, hy, for, from, in, of, on, over, to, through, under, with, hsfore, hehindy 
etc. The scholar may tell a preposition by putting me after it and u verb before it. 

Tevoiiek's Questions.— On '•''John came to me.^^ Questions on sub- 
ject, predicate, John^ and came as before. Q. — What U to ? Ans. 
— V preposition. Q. — Why? Ans. — It governs an objective case, 
and shows its relation to another word in its clause. Q —What 
word does it govern? Ans. — Me. Q. — To what word does it sliow 
the relation of me? Ans. — To cam^e. Q. — What is nic^ Name the 
personal pronouns. Which person? Why? Decline, What case? 
What is it governed by? Ans. — To. Q.— The rule? Ans. —The 
objective case may b3 governed by a preposition. 

1. Analyze Men of money give it to us with caution. 



.Men/ 


,^f</U^ 


\ 


^ 




\ 

/tiO 


•— 1 


1 


— 1 


/mcTWu^ 


yCaaMo7V. 


IW 



Write the preposition between the two words between 
which it shows the relation. If it connects its object- 
ive to a NOUN or pronoun, mark with the attkibutivk 
sign — , otherwise with the adverbial sign =. 
With advanced scholars, indirect objects should be distinguished from 
adverbial adjuncts, and connected to the objective line. Thus a 
person to Avhom something is given^ or for whom something is done^ 
makes an indirect dative object, which may be marked \, and con- 
nected as above. 

Write prep, for preposition. 



7)1. d^, 3d, nom. <3uoj: 



2, Parse John stood hy me, 

/onn, n. ^z 

'7716, hz. h. «^. 'fdl, OM. 

3. Analyze Franklin ivas a man ofmind» 



DECLENSION. — PREPOSITIONS. 



35 



4. Parse He looked at me. 

5. Parse He went to sea, 
G. Parse She spoke to ?ne. 

7. Parse She spoke words to me. 

8. Analyze Boys read for pleasure. 

9. Analyze Boys read hooks for pleasure. 

10. Analyze David took a spear from Saul. 

1 1 . Parse He gave the book to me. 

12. Parse I am he. 

13. Analyze Washington lived in Virginia. 

14. Analyze The moon gives light to us. 

15. Parse The moon looks on many brooks. 

16. Parse Thou art the man. 

1 7. Analyze It is I. 

18. Parse Who spoke to me? 

1 9. Analyze It tvas I. I spoke to you. 

20. Analyze Who ran after me f 

21. Parse It was she. She ran after you. 

22. Analyze Moses kept sheep on Horeh. 

23. Parse Whose sheep are 

those? 

24. Analyze He has a staff 
in his hand. 

25. Parse The desert lies 
before him. 

26. Write a sentence sug- 
gested by the picture 
having the preposition 
with. 

27. Write one with the prep- 

osition behind. 

28. Write one with the prep- 

osition on. ' 

23. Analyze David was a 
shepherd in Bethlehem. 

30. Analyze Moses sang of the creation. 

31. Parse In the beginning God created the heavens. 

32. Analyze David sang on Sion hill. 

33. Analyze Isaiah sang of Siloa's brook. 

34. Write a sentence about something in the picture, and use 
the preposition under. 

35. Write one with the preposition over. 

36. Write one with the preposition before. 




iiixodus, iii. 1. 



36 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

LESSON TWENTY-NINTH. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

[The pupil should now be trained to parse each word, decline the nouns and pro 
nouns, and give the rules for the cases, without questioning.] 

1 . Write a predicate with lions. 

2. Write a subject with bai^k. 

3. Write an intransitive verb as a predicate of iiian. 

4. Write a copuhitive verb and predicate about Washington, 

5. Write a transitive verb and object about Moses. 

6. Write three feminine nouns not names of persons. 

7. Write three proper nouns not names of persons. 

8. Write the mascuUne of aunt, lioness, sister. 

9. Write a predicate adjective about the feminine plural of 
hot/, husband, /'ather. 

10. Analyze Washington wasjirst in war. 

11. Parse Washington was first in peace. 

12. Write a superlative predicate with lions. 

13. Write a sentence with loudest as an attributive adjective. 

14. Analyze Moses rose up 
earhj. 

15. Parse Moses went unto 
Mount Sinai. __ 

IG. Analyze Moses took the ^^^ 

two tables. tVM. 

17. Analyze He took in his f^^^^H 
hand the two tables. ^^^^f 

18. Analyze He took the two Mfffi^ 
tables of stone. ' ' ~ 

19. Write a sentence de- 
scribing the sun in the 
picture. 

20. Write a sentence using 
good as an attributive 
adjective, and one using Kxodus, xxxiv. 4. 
it as predicative adjective. 

21. Write sentences with these adverbs: always, cheerfidly, 
very. 

22. Write the plural of lady, widow, man, boy. 

23. Analyze Sleighing is cold fun. 

24. Write three neutcir names of things you would like to 
have. 

25. Analyze Life seevis short. 

26. Parse The Nile fertilizes Egypt. 




MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 



37 



27. 

28, 
29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33. 
34. 

35. 

36. 

37. 
88. 
39. 
40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 
44. 
45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 
49. 

50. 
51. 
52. 

53. 
54. 
55. 

56. 



Analyze Samuel sent for David, 
Parse David was ruddy. 
Analyze David was 
goodly to the eye. '-^^d 

Analyze David was with ^ ^^ 
the sheep. 

Write a sentence about 
the sheep in the pic- 
ture. 

Analyze Whose sheep 
are these ? 

Parse Who is there ? 
Parse It is I. I am 
here. 

Analyze Shepherds were 
poets once. 
Analyze Shepherds 




1 Samuel, xvi. 11. 



watched the stars in old times. 

Analyze It was I. I sang of man's Jirst disobedience. 

Analj^ze Shepherds icere poets in old times. 

Write three nouns, names of things you can point out. 

Write three nouns, names of revolutionary heroes. 

Write a sentence about each of them. 

Write three nouns, names of cities in England. 

Write a sentence about each of them. 

Write the ordinals for o«e, two^ three, twenty. 

Wiite a sentence with a cardinal about the sheep in the 

picture. 

What gender have these : king^ parent^ sir, child, cousin, 

son-in-la2v, niece, goose, deacon ? 

Analyze Who is that ? 

Parse It is he. It is David. 

Write a sentence describing the sun in the picture en 

page 27. 

Write one describing the clouds. 

Wiite one describing the attitude of Moses on page 34. 

Complete this sentence about Moses : He has in 

his right hand. 

Complete this : He has -in his left hand. 

Write a sentence telling where he is standing. 

Write a sentence about David in the picture on page 35, 

and bring in the preposition upon. 

Write another with around. 



38 INFLEXION OF VERBS. 



CHAPTER V. 

LESSON THIRTIETH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 116, 56, 75.] 

A FINITE VERB agrees with its SUBJECT in 
number and person. 

The PRESENT TENSE denotes present time. 

The scholar can tell whether a fonn is present by putting noio after it 
INDICATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, / love. We love. 

Second person, Thou loves t. Ye or i/ou love. 

Third person, He loves. They love. 

Teacher's Questions. — On '•'-John loves mr." Questions as before 

on subject, predicate, and John. Q. — What part of speech is loves? 

Why ? Transitive, intransitive, or copulative ? Why ? What 

tense? Ans. — The present tense. Q. — Why? Ans. — It denotes 

present time, John lovrs now. Q. — Inflect it. Ans First person 

I b've^ second person Thou lovest, third person He loves; Plural: 
first person We lovc^ second person Ve or you lovr^ third person They 
love. Q — Wliat number and person is loves f Ans. — Singular 
number and third person. Q. Why? Ans. — To agree with its sub- 
ject, John. Q — Rule ? Ans.— A finite verb agrees with its subject 
in number and person. Questions as before on me. 

1. Parse John likes apples. Write j)res. for present. 



V. 



I. Ated^. dtna, 3a. 



2. Parse He loves his mother, 

3. Parse Thou lovest me. 

4. Parse They love money. 

5. Parse Misers love money. 

6. Parse Poets make melodies, 

7. Parse / hope for happiness. 

8. Analyze They dream of peace. 

9. Analyze A good teacher likes cheerful faces, 

10. Parse The roses fade. 

11. Analyze God helps the stout-hearted. 

12. Analyze A father-'' s Messing builds houses for his chii- 
dren. 



INFLECTION. — PRESENT TENSE. 39 

LESSON THIRTY-FIRST. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 72.] 

The verb to be is irregular. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, / am. We are. 

Second person, Thou art. Ye or you are. 

Third person. He is. They are. 

Teacher's Questions as before. Insist on the inflection with erei-j 
example. 

1. Parse He is strong. 

2, Parse They are good, 
8. Parse Who is that ? 
i. Parse It is he, 

5. Analyze Fire is a good servant, 

6. Parse Fire is a had master. 

7. Parse We are here. -^^ zzi^^ps^ : =^~ _ 

8. Analyze Here are reaj)- =^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ 

16. Analyze Anger is a short 

madness. 

17. Parse Are you there? 

18. Analyze I am. here. 

1 9. Analyze Good men are the images of God. 

20. Analyze The visit of a friend is the sunlight of a house* 

21. Analyze Little things are great to little men. 

22. Parse It is ice. We are here. 

23. Parse You are my friend. 

24. Parse Thou art my friend. 

25. Analyze The jdaral yo\5 is an address of courtesy to one 
person. 



40 INFLECTION. — PAST TENSE. 

LESSON THIRTY-SECOND. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 57, 74, 75.] 

The PAST TENSE denotes PAST time. 

The scholar may tell whether a form is past by putting yesterday 
after it. 

Regular verbs form the past tense by the 
addition of -d or -ed to the present. 

INDICATIVE BIODE. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, / loved. We loved. 

Second person, Thou lovedst. Ye or you loved. 

Third person, He loved. They loved. 

Tkaciier's Questions.— On "J loved." Special questions on loved. 
Q — What part of speech ? Why? Trans>itive, intransitive, or cop- 
ulative? Why? What tense? Why? Ans. — It denotes past time. 
/ loved YESTERDAY. Q. — From what present? Aks — From love. 

Q. — How is loved formed from lovef Ans. — By adding d. Q Is 

love a regular verb? Why ? A>fS. — Because it fonns its past tense 
by the addition of -d. Q. — Inflect the present, love. Inflect tlie 
past, loved. See the Questions in Lesson XXX. What number and 
person? Wiiy? Rule? 

1. Parse John liked apples. Write rer/. for reyidar^ and 
past for past tense. 

^onn, 'it. fi. 7n. <^. 3ci, no?n. <iuOi. 

ukcc/, «'. I. tea. ha-jl, ^itna. 3a, 

af/hu'd-, 71. c. "St. AC. oif, 

2. Parse He loved his sister. 

3. Parse She loved her brother. 

4. Parse The roses faded. 

5. Parse Lovedst thou me ? 

r>. Analj^ze All hoped for happiness, 

7. Parse Washington loved liberty. 

8. Analyze His countrymen loved Washington. 

9. Write a sentence containing the past tense of wish. 

10. Write one containing the past tense, singular, first person 
of help. 

11. Write one with the past, plural, 2d o^ dream. 

12. Analyze WJto invented letters? 

13. Parse Who discovered the circulation of the blood 

14. Analyze Who first used a steam-boat? 
35. Parse He opened those books. 



REGULAR VERBS. 



41 



It whistled itself. 




Exodus, ix. 22. 



16. Parse The roses faded. 

17. Analyze Who ivhistledf 

18. Analyze It hailed upon 
all the land of Egypt. 

ID. Write a sentence about 
the Pyramids as shown 
in the picture, contain- 
ing the past tense of 
lighten. 

20. Write one containing j 
the past tense of rain. 

21. Write one containing j 
the past tense of min- 
gle. 

22. Au'dlyzQ Franklin lorest- 
ed the lightning from 
the skies. 

23. Write a sentence con- 
taining the past tense of tremble. 

21. Analyze Who erected the Pyramids ? 

25. Parse The Nile overflowed Egypt. 

26. Write a sentence with Pharaoh for its subject and pur-* 
sued for its verb. 

27. Write a sentence with hardened for its verb. 

28. Parse He handed me those hooks. 

29. Parse I wanted those shoes. 

30. Analyze / looked at those books. 

31. Parse What is that f , 

32. Analyze A friend never flatters, 

33. Write a sentence with the past tense oiflee. 
31. Parse Washington lived in Virginia. 

35. Analyze He looked at me. 

36. Parse The shepherds watched the stars in old timts^ 

37. Write a sentence with seemed as its verb. 

38. Write a sentence with appeared as its verb. 

39. Parse The north winds killed the fruit. 

40. Analyze The snow half covered the fences. 

41. Parse The horse trotted briskly. 

42. Parse We saved those peaches. 

43. Analyze Those hoys looked sick. 

44. Parse The tailor used a goose. 

45. Analyze A noble dog saved a drowning hoy. 

46. Parse An honest man is a noble man. 



42 



PAST TENSE. — IRREGULAR VERBS. 



LESSON THIRTY-THIRD. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 79.] 

Irregular verbs are such as do not form 
the past tense and perfect participle by the 
addition of -d. or -ed to the present. 

Irregular verbs generally change the vowei 
of the present to form the past. 



Present. Past. 

eat.. ate. 
bid, bade, 
steal, stole, 
swim, swam, 
find, found. 
run, ran. 


Present. Past. 

drive, drove, 
cleave, clove, 
choose, chose, 
icake, woke, 
take, took, 
stand, stood. 

ODICATIYE MODE. 


Present. Past. 
fall, fell, 
blow, blew, 
sell, sold, 
bring, brought, 
seek, scujht. 
buy, bought. 


First person. 
Second person. 
Third person. 


TAST TENSE. 

Singular. 
/ took. 
Thou tookest. 
He took. 


Plural. 
We took. 
Ye or you took. 
They took. 


Teacher's Question 
Q — -What part of s 


3.— On "7 took.'''' Special questions on took. 
peech ? Why ? Transitive, intransitive, or cop- 



ulative? Why? What tense? Why? Ans It denotes pas^t time, 

I took YESTERDAY. Q.— From what present? Ans. — From tab". 
Q. — How formed ? Ans — By change of vowel — a to oo. Q. — Regu- 
lar or irregular? Why? Ans. — Because it does not form its past 
tense by the addition of -d or -ed to the present. Q. — Inflect the 
present. Inflect the past. Number and person ? Why ? lUile ? 

1. Parse John ran fast. Write ir. for irregular, 

Jon^i, '71. h. m, d. Sc/, nom. <itcM. 

2. Parse / stood fast, 

3. Parse We woke up. 

4r. Parse They fell down, 

5. Parse / took it up. 

6. Analyze Who took those apples f 

7. Parse She ate them up. 

8. Parse Benedict Arnold sold his country. 

9. Analyze Leander swam the Hellespont. 

10. Parse The Turk awoke. 

11. Write sentences with the past tense oifnd, buy, run. 



PAST TENSE. — IREEGULAR VERBS. 



43 



LESSON THIRTY-FOURTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 72.] 

TO BE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



Rain, 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 
First person, / was. 
Second person, Thou wast. 
Third person, He was. 

Teacher's Questions. — As before, 
derstood. Thus, '-'-Who is itf /," write '■'■'(itis) I: 

1 . Parse He was good. 

2. Parse You were right. 

3. Parse Were they happy? 

4. Parse Who were those boys ? Truants. 

5. Parse / was in Boston. 

6. Parse What was that ? 

7. Parse A storm arose. 

8. Parse The winds blew. 

9. Parse The rain descend- 
ed. 

10. 'Parse The floods came. 

11. Analyze The stream beat 
vehemently upon that 
house. 

12. Analyze Who is that? 

13. Parse It was I. 

14. Analyze You were 
wrong. 

15. Analyze The ivise man 
founded his house upon 
a rock. 

16. Parse The stream shook it not 



Plural. 
We were. 
Ye or you were. 
They were. 
Supply in parentlieses words un- 




Luke, vi. 48. 



17. Parse Birds Jiew in the air. 

18. Analyze Esau sold his birthright. 

19. Parse He drove like Jehu. 

20. Parse Philip bought traitors. 

21. Analyze I clove him to the chin.' 

22. Parse They fell like lead. 

23. Analyze There was a sound of revelry hy night. ^ 

24. Write sentences using the past tense of eat^ bid, steaU 
seek. 

D 



44 FUTURE TENSE. 

LESSON THIRTY-FIFTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 58, 75.] 

The FUTURE TENSE denotes future time. 

Its Bigu is shall or loill. Such verbs are called auxiliary verba. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 
FUTURE TEKSE. 

1. The regular verb love. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, / shall love. We shall love. 

Second person, Thoit wilt love. Ye or yo?< will love. 

Third person, He ivill love. They will love. 

2. The irregular verb be. 

First person, / shall be. TVe shall be. 

Second person. Thou luilt be. Ye or yoii will be. 

Third person. He will be. They will be. 
Teacher's Questions. — On "i shall go.''^ Q. — What is the subject? 
Why ? Predicate ? V/hy ? Verb ? 'Why ? Transitive, intransitive, 
or copulative? Why? Tense? Why? Ans. — It denotes future 
tense, / shall go to-morrow. Q. — From Avhat present ? How form- 
ed ? Ans — By prefixing the future sign shall. Q ^Is go regular 

or irregular ? Why ? Inflect the present. The past. The futura. 
Number and person ? Why ? Rule ? 

\, V2iXSQ I shall go, WxitQ fut for future. 
2. Analyze Frank will tell us. 



3. Parse We shall (jo away. 

4. Parse He will save us. 

5. Analyze Yoii ivill see but little of him. 

6. Parse / shall sniffer terribly. 

7. Analyze God ivill help the helpful. 

8. Parse We shall endure much hardship. 

9. Analyze They will play a game to-morrow, 

10. Analyze You will watch in vain. 

11. Parse We shall be here twenty days, 

12. Analyze Thou wilt soon forget us. 

13. Parse You will soon become a hero» 



^6>J. 



FUTURE-PROMISSIYE FORM. 



45 



LESSON THIRTY-SIXTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 69, 75.] 

In promises, will is used in the first perso?!^ 
and SHALL in the seco7id and tJw^d. 

Tbaciiek's Questions. — On '''-I will go.'^ Questions first as in the last 
lesson; then add: Why is ivill used instead of shall f Ans. — In 
promises, will is used in the first person, and shall in the second and 
third. 

1. Parse / will tell Mm, 'Wx'itQ fiit. prom, hv future pro- 
missive. 



of, fiz 



n€4}i, ^zt. fz. d. 3c/, oOf. 



d. 'fii-^. 



2. Parse We luill help you. 

3. Parse He shall pay you. 

4. Parse You shall go. I will take you. 

5. AxiixiyzQ I ivillmarry you. 

6. Write a promise to pay 
a debt with / for the 
subject. 

7. Write a promise that ; 
your brother shall pay 
a debt to-morrow. 
Analyze The good citi- j 
zen ivill hope well for 
his country. 
Parse Roses will fade. 
Parse You shall have \ 
your money. 

Write a sentence with 
/ for its subject, and 

with shall or will^ declaring that you are to be married 

to-morrow. 
12. Write a sentence with you for its object, promising to 

marry to-morrow. 
13 Parse He will help us. 
\4t. VsiX^Q I shall drown. 

1 5. Parse Nobody will help me. 

16. Parse We will help him. 

1 7. Analyze He shall not drown. 

18. Analyze The river ivill hear him away. 



8. 



9 
10, 

11 




46 



PERFECT TENSE. 



LESSON THIRTY-SEVENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 59, 65, 75, 79.] 

The PERFECT TENSE denotes an act as hav- 
ing NOW been done. 

Its sign is liave^ which is put with the past participle. 

A PARTICIPLE is a form of the verb which 
is used like an adjective. 

The scholar may tell the past participle by putting have before it. 

The principal parts of a verb are the present 
tense, the past tense, and the past participle. 

The past participle of the regular verb is like the past tense. 

The past participles of irregular verbs are often formed by adding -en 
or -n to the present tense, sometimes to the imperfect, and they are 
often like the past tense. 



resent. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


Present. 




Regular. 




steal. 


love^ 


loved. 


loved. 


choose, 


aid, 


aided. 


aided. 


find. 




Irregular. 




stand. 


eat. 


ate. 


eaten. 


sell. 


bid. 


bade. 


bidden. 


bring, 


drive, 


drove. 


driven. 


seek. 


take. 


took, 


taken. 


swim. 


cleave. 


clove. 


cloven. 


run, 



Past. 


Past Part. 


stole. 


Stolen. 


chose. 


chosen. 


found. 


found. 


stood. 


stood. 


sold. 


sold. 


brought, 


brought. 


sought. 


sought. 


swam. 


sicum. 


ran. 


imru 



INDICATIVE MODE. 
rEEFECT TENSE. 

\. The regular verb love. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, / have bved. We have loved. 

Second person, Thoii hast loved. Ye or you have loved. 
Third person, He has loved. They have loved. 

2. The irregular verb he. 
First person, / have been. We have been. 

Second person, Thou hast been. Ye or you have been. 
Third person, He has been. They have been. 

Teachek's Questions On '-^ I have taken the letter.''' Questions aa 

before as far as the tense of have taken, Q — Tense ? Why ? A^•s. 
—It denotes an action as just now done. Q— From what present? 
X-^^.—Take. Q.— How fonned? Ans.— By prefixing the sign /in' v/? 
to the past particle taken. Q.— Give the principal parts of take. 

Ans. Present take, past took, past participle taken. Q.— Regular 

or irregular? Why? Inflect the present. The past. The future. 
The perfect. Number and person ? Why? Rule? 

1. Parse I have Uved thee. Write per/I ior perfect. 



PERFECT TENSE. 47 

^a7/6 ioueo^, 1/. I. tea. hetjf. d. "fdi^. 

2. Parse He has been away. 

3. Parse He has found his match. 

4. Analyze He has caught a Tartar. 

5. Parse We have lived long. 

6. Analyze We have seen many men. 

7. Parse / have written the letter. 

8. Analyze / have told you all about it. 

9. Analyze I have just returned from Paris, 

10. Parse Have you been to town this morning? 

11. Parse Have you taken breakfast? 

12. Analyze Thou hast chosen the good part. 

13. Write a sentence upon 
the picture, Avith the 
perfect of take. 

14. Write another with the 
perfect o^flee. 

15. Write another with tlH3 
perfect of leave. 

16. Analyze He has taken 
his staff in his hand. 

17. Analyze He has sold his 
birthright for a mess 
of pottage. 

18. Parse the Hiad of Ho- 
mer has survived two 
thousand years. 

19. Write a sentence with the perfect of steal. 

20. Parse He has found my books. 

21. Analyze He has brought his Robinson Crusoe to schooL 

22. Parse Hoiv many boys have read Robinson Crusoe ? 

23. Write a sentence with the perfect of eat. 
21. Write a sentence with the perfect of drown. 

25. Parse He has left the city. 

26. Parse He has stood on Bunker Hill. 

27. Analyze / shall drown. 

28. Parse / will marry you. 

29. Parse He shall not drown. 

30. Write sentences with the perfects of bid^ run^ sell. 




48 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 



LESSON THIRTY-EIGHTH. 



[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 



, 75, 72.] 



The PAST PERFECT TENSE denotes an act as 
done BEFORE some PAST time. 

Its sign is Jiad, which is put with the past participle. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PAST PEllFEOT TENSE. 

1. The regular verb love. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, / had loved. We had loved. 

Second person, IVtou hadst loved. Ye or you had loved^ 

Third person, He had loved. J'hey had loved. 

2. The irregular verb be. 

First person, / had been. We had been. 

Second person, Thou hadst been. Ye or you had been. 

Third person. He had been. They had been. 

Teacher's Questions. — As in Lesson XXXVII. 

1. Analyze He had taken his son to Paris, 



Aony 



ty^cc 



^xxA^^. 



2. Parse He had tried every thing. Write ;>a5^ per/, for 
past perfect. 

3. Analyze He had hoped till that moment. 

4. Parse He had loved much. 

5. Parse We had seen better days. 

6. Analyze Washington had crossed the Delaware the night 
before. 

7. Parse They had tried every thing. 

8. Analyze Franklin had already invented the lightning-rod. 

9. Parse We will help you. 

10. Parse He shall help you. 

1 1 . Parse / shall drown, 

1 2. Analyze We came too late. He had sunk. 
18. Parse You had fought bravely. 

14. Analyze He had been long an invalid. 



LESSON THIRTY-NINTH. 



49 



[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 61, 75, 72.] 

The FUTURE PERFECT TENSE denotes an act 
as done before some future time. 

Its sign is shall have or will have^ which is put with the past participle. 

In promises, will have is used in the Jirt; I 
person^ and SHALL HAVE in the second and thirds 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. The regular verb love. 

Singular. Plural. 

First person, I shall have loved. We shall have loved. 

Second person, Thou wilt have loved. Ye or you will have loved. 
Third person, He will have loved. They will have loved. 

2. The irregular verb be. 

First person, J shall have been. We shall have been. 

Second person, Thou wilt have been. Ye or you will have been. 

Third person, He will have been. They will have been. 

Teacher's Questions. — As in Lessons XXXV. and XXXVI. 
1. Parse / shall have been successful before that, "Write 

Jut. per/, for future perfect^ and fut. perf, prom, for 

future perfect promissive, 

fit. ft. d^. "fti^^, no77t. duo/. 

d, 44i. 



veen, v^. c. €t. 



diccceddJat, a. /z. hted. 



Sc/, o^J. 



ful^, fte 



oie, fiteh. 
mal, fit. c/e^t, 

2. Parse He will have gone 
at nightfall. 

3. Parse We will have 
gone before night. 

4. Analyze They will have 
shorn him before long, 

5. Analyze Before the end 
of a hundred years we 
shall all have died. 

6. Analyze In an hour I 
shall have finished my 
letter. 

7. Parse He shall have 
paid at three o clock. 




50 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIOKS. 

LESSON FOKTIETH. 

MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 

[The pupil may now be taught to give a synopsis of the tenses of the 
indicative mode, and may inflect only the tense in which his verb 
is found. Each sentence should bs analyzed at recitation, as in 
Lessons XVIII.-XXVIII., and then each word parsed.] 

SYNOPSIS. SYNOPSIS* 

Regular verb love. Irregular vei'b he. 

Present, / love. I am. 

Past, I loved. I was. 

Future, I shall love, J shall be. 

Perfect, I have loved. ^ I have been. 

Past perfect, / had loved. I had been. 

Future perfect, / shall have loved, I shall have been, 

1. Parse Life seems short. 

2. Analyze Good books are j^Ieascmt companions, 

3. Parse / shall drown. 

4. Parse / will go. 

5. Parse Thou wilt soon forget me, 

6. Parse Thou shalt soon he paid. 

7. Analyze Who took those apples ? 

8. Parse It was I. 

9. Parse She ate those peaches, 

1 0. Analyze He drove like Jehu. 

11. Analyze Who discovered the circulation of the Mood? 

12. Parse True friendship is eternal, 

13. Parse Washington Uvecc at Mount Vernon, 

14. Parse Girls whisper too much. 
L5. Analyze They fell like lead. 

16. Parse You will soon become famous. 

1 7. Analyze We shall be here a week. 

1 8. Analyze He shall not drown, 

19. Parse We will help him, 

20. Analyze Those clouds are very black. 

21. Parse The wise man built his house upon a rock, 

22. Analyze Have you taken supper ? 

23. Parse Before this time to-morrow I shall have gained a 
peerage. 

21. Parse We had tried every thing. 

25. Analyze He had been long in command. 

26. Parse 27/6^ shall have paid at three o'clock, 

27. Parse Washington had crossed the Delaware the night 
before, 

28. Parse / ivill marry you. 




MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 51 

29. Parse I shall marry Jier, 

30. Write a sentence de- 
scribing the child in the 
picture. 

31. Write what you think 
will become of him. 

32. Write a sentence de- 
scribing the water. 

33. Write a sentence about 
the thing in which the 
child lies. 

34. Write a sentence about 
rushes in the picture. 

35. Parse He shall not 
drown. 

36. Analyze To-morrow he lu ill have starved. 

37. Parse They had hoped till that moment. 

38. Analyze The good citizen never desjjairs of the republic. 

39. Parse A storm arose. 

40. Parse The winds blew. 

41. Parse God helps the stout-hearted. 

42. Analj'Ze Hope comes to all, 

43. Parse The visit of a friend is the sunlight of a house, 

44. Analyze Who is thei'e f It is I. 

45. Parse Good men are the images of God. 
4G. Parse Little things are great to little men. 

47. Analyze Sleighing is cold fun. 

48. Analyze Moses rose up early in the morning. 

49. Parse Shepherds ivere poets once. 

50. Parse We shall all pass away. 

51 . Write a sentence containing a numeral. 

52. Write one containing a demonstrative. 

53. Write one with a distributive. 

54. Write one with a copulative verb. 

55. Write one with a transitive verb. 

56. Write one with an interrogative. 

57. Write one with the possessive plural of man. 

58. Write one with the feminine of husband. 

59. Write one with the second person singular of the pasi 
tense of an irregular verb. 

60. Write one with a promise in the first person. 

61. Analyze Josephs brethren fed his father s flock. 

62. Analyze In the beginning God created the earth. 



52 MODES. 

LESSON FOKTY-FIRST. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 62.] 

The INDICATIVE mode expresses a simple 
assertion or question. 

The POTENTIAL mode expresses possibility^ 
necessity^ or DUTY. 

Its signs are may, can, must, might, could, would, sJiould. 

The SUBJUNCTIVE mode expresses a condi- 
tion. 

Its signs are if, tJiough, lest, except, unless, presided, etc. 

The IMPERATIVE mode expresses a command. 
The infinitive is used as a noun. 

Its sign is to. 

The PARTICIPLES are used as adjectives. 

Teacher's Questions. — On "-H'c 7*a??." The subject? Why? Pred- 
icate? Why? Parse he. What part of speech is ran? Why? 
Transitive, intransitive, or copulative ? Why ? From what pres- 
ent? The principal parts of run. Regular or irregular? Why? 
What mode? Ans. — Indicative. Q. — Why? Ams.— It expresses a 

simple assertion. Q. — Its sign? Ans None. Q. — Tense? Why? 

Give the synopsis of the indicative. Inflect the tense. Number 
and person ? Why ? Kule. 

1. Parse / shall go. Write hid. for indicative^ pot. for po- 
tential^ suhj. for suhjunctive^ imp. for impjerative^ inf. for 
injinitive, p. for participle. 

2. Parse / have written the htter. 

3. Parse I have just come home. 

4. Parse We will help you. 

5. Parse TFe shall he off to-morrow. 

6. Analyze W^ho goes there f It is I. 

7. Analyze Whose hooks are those ? 

8. Analyze Cowards die many times hefore their deaths. 

9. Parse God will help the helpful. 

10. Analyze God will have a stroke in every hattle. 

11. Analyze He will have gone hefore night. 

1 2. Write a sentence with an indicative present. 

13. Write a .sentence with an indicative past. 



POTENTIAL PRESENT. 



53 



LESSON FORTY-SECOND. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 75.] 

The sign of the potential present is may, 
can^ or must. 

The regular verb love. 

SINGULAR. 

First person, / uiay^ can^ or must love. 
Second person, TJiou mayest^ canst, or must love. 
Third person. He may, can, or must love, 

PLURAL. 

First person. We may, can, or must love. 
Second person, Ye or you may, can, or must love. 
Third person. They may, can, or must love. 

Teacher's Questions. — As in Lesson XLI. Ask also of each potoa- 
tial : Which does it express, possibility, necessity, or duty ? 

1. Parse He must go, 

cyoe, ^tt. ^. d. "iJi, 3c/, no7}t, duot, 
^}uco^ ao, 'i/. t. ti. Aot. fized. d. /«^^, 

2. Parse You may eat those apples. 

3. Parse He can drive a good bargain. 

4. Analyze Leander can sivim the Hellespont, 

5. Analyze / must take my side against you, 
G. Parse He may catch a 

Tartar. 

7. Parse He can not hold \ 
the vessel. 

8. Parse It may explode. 

9. Parse He must drop it. 

10. Analyze What can he I 
do? 

11. Analyze Tt may blind \ 
him. 

12. Analyze He has taken | 
the cup. 

13. Parse He may lose his 
sight. 

1 1. Parse We may droivn. 

15. Analyze They must be here to-morrow, 

16. Analyze All men must die. 

17. Parse No one can be great in all things. 




54 * POTENTIAL PAST. 

LESSON EORTY-THIRD. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 75.] 

The sign of the potential past is mighty 

could^ ivouldj or should. 

The regular verb love, 

SINGULAR. 

First person, I mighty could^ ivonld, or sliould love. 

Second per., 27^0?^ tniglitest^ couidst, woiddst, or shouldst love. 

Third per., He might, could, woidd, or should love. 

PLURAL. 

First person, We migJit, cozild, ivoidd, or should love. 
Second person. Ye or yo2i might, could, ivould, or should love^ 
Third person. They might, could, ivoidd, or should love, 

Teacuee's Questions As in Lesson XLII. 

1. Analyze He should run to a doctor. 



^^yCcy MiaaM/ A€^/?7y 



VJk)- 



^(X.to'l/. 



2. Parse They could not go yesterday, 

3. Parse I might perhaps go to Boston, 

4. Parse You ivould like him itmch, 

5. Analyze Yoti should trust your friends. 

6. Analyze You shoidd love your enemies. 

7. Parse She might do better. 

8. Parse We should revieiv our lessons often. 

9. Analyze Leander coidd sivim the Hellespont^ 

10. Parse Lord Byron swam the Hellespont. 

1 1 . Parse Where can tve go ? 

1 2. Analyze We coidd hope nothing more. 

13. Parse We should do good to our neighbors. 

14. J^RYse I shall d7'own. 

15. Parse We will help you. 

16. Analyze Every change must have a cause. 

17 Parse The best bread is the cheapest, 

18 Parse We coidd Jind no other bread. 



POTENTIAL PERFECT. 55 

LESSON FORTY-FOURTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 75.] 

The sign of the potential perfect is may 
have^ can have, or must have. 

The regular verb love. 

SINGULAR. 

First person, / may, can, or must have loved. 
Second person, Thou may est, canst, or must have loved. 
Third person, He may, can, or 'iaust have loved. 

PLCRAL. 

First person. We may, can, or must have loved. 
Second person. Ye or you may, can, or must have loved. 
Third person. They may, can, or must have loved. 
Teacher's Questions. — As in Lesson XLII. 

1. Parse He may have loved her. 

9Ce, hz. ft. d. m. 3c/, ncm. dciOi. ^ 

7nau na'i/e /oiAec/, v, /. teg. ^lol^. /^^ 
^ez, fit. fi. «^. /.^c/, o^. 

2. Parse She may have seen me, 

3. Parse She must have eaten them. 

4. Analyze They must have 
gone to Neio York. 

5. Parse There must have 
been a great flood. 

6. Parse Many persons 
must have perished. 

7. Analyze Some may have 
escaped. 

8. Analyze Much property 
must have perished. 

9. Parse The flood may 
have reached the high 
lands. 

10. Analyze It must have 
carried away many 
bridges, 

11. Parse Some trees may have withstood the waters, 

12. Parse We may have trusted others too far. 

13. Analyze He must have seen many strange sights^ 




56 POTENTIAL PAST PERFECT. 

LESSON rOPvTY-FIFTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 75.] 

The sign of the POTENTIAL PAST perfect is 
might liave^ could have^ would have, or should 
have. 

The regular verb love. 

SINGULAR. 

First, I might, could, ivould, or should have loved. 

Second, Thou mightest, couldst, ivouldst, or shouldst have loved. 

Third, He might, could, would, or should have loved. 

PLURAL. 

First, We might, could, ivould, or should have loved. 
Second, Ye or you might, could, woidd, or should have loved. 
Third, They might, could, would, or should have loved, 

SYNOPSIS OF TUE POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, / may, can, or must love. 
Past, / might, could, would, or should love. 

Perfect, / may, can, or must have loved. 

Past perfect, / might, could, ivguld, or should have loved. 
Teacuer's Questions. — As in Lesson XLII. 

1. Parse They might have escaped. 

Q/neu, hi. h. hi. Sa, no7?z. <^uOf. 

77ua^l^ Aav6 cdcahec/, i^. ^. zea. hot hadl hetj-. 

2. Parse They could have 
saved me. 

8. Parse You should have 
studied harder. 

4. Analyze We might have 
aimed higher. 

5. Analyze Where could 
they have fled? 

6. Parse That would have 
been much better. 

7. Parse They might have 
fled before the battle. 

8. Write sentences with a 
past perfect, a present, 
and a perfect potential 
suggested by the picture. 




CONJUNCTIONS. 57 

LESSON FORTY-SIXTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 88, 133.] 

Conjunctions connect sentences^ clauses^ or 
like parts of clauses. 

A clause is one verb and subject with all their adjuncts. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions connect sen-^ 
iences or like parts of a sentence. 

They make no simple combination, but are merely signs of connection. 
Such are and, but, or, nor, yet, etc. ; correlatives, botJi — and, either — or, etc. 

Teacher's Questions. — On ''/ saw and I conquered.'^ Special ques- 
tions on and. Q.— What part of speech is and? Aks. — A conjunc- 
tion. Q. — Why? Ans. — It connects two clauses. Q — What clauses? 

Ans Those in which saw and conquered are the principal verbs. 

Q. — What kind of conjunction? Ans.— Co-ordinate. Q. — Why? 
Ans. — It connects like parts of a sentence. Q. — Rule? Ans. — Co- 
ordinate conjunctions connect sentences, or like parts of a sentence. 

1. AndiXyzQ I saw and T conquered. Analyze each clause, 
connect the lines of predication, and write the conjunction 
letween, as in the diagram. 



J 


jd<t6^ 


a/7id 


J 


/C077^UM£^, 



2. Parse You can go or you can stay. Write conj. o. for co- 
ordinate conjunction, 

ot, conf. c. 
yot^, ht. h. he. 2c/, no?it. <iUM. 
ca'Jt d^l^ay, e/. €. lea. hol^. fized^. hi. 2ci. 

3. Analyze They must come., and they must work. 

4. Analyze I shall go., and you shall stay, 

5. Parse / have lived long, and I have seen many changes, 

6. Analyze Art is hng and life is short. 

7. Parse The good are rare, and they are not always welcome. 

8. Parse We must study more, and we must work faster, 

9. Analyze I can fly and I can run. 

10. Parse Washington was a native of Virginia, and he lived 
there much of his life, 

11. Analyze The sun rises and the sun goes down. 



58 



GO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 



LESSON FOUTY-SEVENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 117, 119.] 

When the subject is two or more nouns 
taken conjointly, the verb takes the plural. 

A SINGULAR COLLECTIVE may combine with 
'plurals when the individuals are in mind. 

A repeated subject is ofteii understood. 

It should be written out in the answers to the questions, and so should 
other omitted words. Such words may he put in parentheses. 

Teacher's Questions. — On '' One and one are twoy Special ques- 
tions on are. Q. — Parse are. Anb. — Are is a verb, because it 
predicates ; copulative, because it predicates the numeral two ; 
— present 6?, 7S, or aw, past Tvas, past participle beeji; — irregu- 
lar, because it does not form its past tense and past participle by 
the addition of -d or ~ed; indicative mode, because it expresses a 
simple assertion ; — present tense, because it denotes present time 
(one and one are kow two) ; — I am^ thou art^ he ?s, we are., ye or ?/o?6 
are.^ they are; — plural number and third person, to agree with its 
subject." A verb agrees with its subject in number and person. 

Q What is its subject? Ans One anA one. Q.— Rule? Ans — . 

When the subject is two or more nouns taken conjointly, the verb 
takes the plural number. 

1. Analyze Mary and I married early. 



ty/iaM'P' ^ct/^^ 


J 


/?7iyoMce<// 



2. Parse I saw and conquered. 

Q/, fit. h. d. "f^il, no7n. iiuvi. 
fii^at^, 1^. €. tz. tna. ^a<il^, e^. /«/^. 

ana, com. c. 
^/, fit. fz. c^. ^d^l, no?7t. <^t{^. 
conaaezec/, ip. €. tea. tnc/. fia^i^, <^. /«^/. 

3. Analyze You and I are old friends. 

4. Analyze / went and saw him. 

5. Analyze Leander and Lord Byron swam the Hellespont 

6. Analyze / have lived and suffered. 



CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 59 

7. Analyze Washington wasjirst in ivar and first in peace. 



'^1^71/ 



JtUd 



A^?l/ 



yO^OA/ 



^ 



\AeaceA 



8, Analyze Franhlin ivas wise and patriotic. 

d. Analyze New York is a great and growing city. 



■J^"^^ 


yCd .C^Zu-, 






•+ -|- /O/noL - 


- 




y<L 


/Oiea^ 


/oiouy^ma^ 



10. Analyze Lafayette was a generous and ardent man. 

11. Analyze They ran faster and faster. 

12. Analyze Washington and Lafayette were firm friends. 

13. Analyze / went to New York, and there Lsaiv an elephant. 

14. Analyze il/ciMy ??ie« and much property must have perished. 

15. Analyze You and I should trust our friends and love our 
enemies, 

16. Analyze A king or a queen always rules in England. 

17. Analyze She lays her 
hands to the spindle, 
and her hands hold the 
distaff. 

1 8. Analyze She makes fine 
linen and sells it. 

19. Analyze She opens her 
mouth with wisdom, and 
in her tongue is the law 
of kindness. 

20. Analyze She looks well 
to the ways of her house- 
hold, and eats not the 
bread of idleness, 

21. Analyze Many daugh- 
ters have done virtuously, hut thou excellest them all. 

E 




60 



CO-OKDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 



22. Parse We were unanimous. 

23. Parse The society were agreed. 

24. Parse The Senate is in session. 

25. Parse The Convention ivere all ready for the vote. 

2o. Analyze J%e Senate and House of Representatives con" 

curred in a resolution of adjournment. 
27. Analyze She sang clearly and sweetly. 



cS%^ 


.^d-a/?!^ 




:p yam<j6^ -z 




x^UaAC^ 


^A^^c^^^oyi 



28. Parse My wife and I agreed, 

29. Analyze He harangued loudly and long. 
80. Analyze Where are your pen and ink? 

31. Analyze Three and four are seven. 

32. Parse Three and two are five, 

33. Analyze The Senate were all anxious for news. 

34. Analyze The house is pleasant in summer and winter. 



VChU<i^ 



31 



..yOd y/lX^eyOxiCCyTT^ 



^/n£/ 



^i^n77ve4y 



XTvd^ 



.^u^^z/e^. 



35. Analyze The soil is good for cotton and corn. 
3G. Analyze Active labor is good for the stomach and i)^ 
pocket. 

37. Analyze Early rising helps to health and wealth. 

38. Parse The Senate listen to every word. 

39- Parse Napoleori s army was victorious at Marengo. 
40 Analyze The mother of Frank and Mary lives there. 



y'PTVO'^^ 



^ve^U 



^^C<A/^ 



cj^ta/ny^ 



/iZTlcL 



tJlaA/u^ 



y^/ieAe/. 



CO-OKDINATE CONJUJS'CTIONS. 



61 



41. Analyze Eve ivas the mother of Cain and AbeL 

42. Analyze I saio Cain and Abels mother. 



^ 



J^cui/^ 



/7?i.o^rLe^'. 



^. 



^/dc/ny 



/tzncu 



43. Analyze I saw Cain's and Noah'' s mother. 



J 



.A^z^z^ 



y/?7bo^n^yV) 



/o/ncL^ 



/TTbO-c/ieAy, 



/0ytz<:y?7^ 



44. Analyze Bread and butter is good. 



^A£4Z^ - /O/Tl^ -- yO-CK/oe^ 



M 



/ooi^r//. 



45. Analyze I want a bowl of bread and milk. 

46. Analyze The name of the firm is J, Smith and Co. 

47. Analyze JEve ivas Cain and Abel's 7nother. 

48. Analyze Adam was Cain and Abel's father. 

49. Analyze / ivent to Smithy Brown^ and Company's store. 

50. Analyze / icent to Smith's and Brown's store. 

51 . Analyze Have you Andrews and Stoddard's Grammar ? 

52. Analyze Have you Worcester's and Webster's Dictionary ? 

53. Analyze Have you seen Washington's and Jefferson's pic- 
ture? 

54. Analyze The House were all busy. 

55. Analyze Washington and Franklin were true patriots. 

56. Analyze Washington was first in war^ first in peace, and 
first in the hearts of his countrymen, 

57. Analyze Franklin wrested the lightning from heaven, and 
the scepter from tyrants. 

58. Analyze The Germans sometimes sneer at bread-and-butter 
philosophy. 



62 SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

LESSON FORTY-EIGHTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 125, 75.] 

The sign of the subjunctive mode is if^ 
though^ lestj unless^ provided, or the like. 

Subordinate conjunctions connect a subor- 
dinate clause to some word which it modifies. 

Such are if, though, lest, unless, provided, because, as, than, etc. 

A suhordinaie clause is used as a substantive^ 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

The clause containing a subjunctive is a conditional adverb, and mod- 
ifies the verb to wiiich it is connected by its conjunction. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. The regular verb love, 

SINGULAK. PLURAL. 

First person, If I love. If ive love. 

Second person, If thou love. Ify^ or you love. 

Third person, If he love. If they love. 

2. The irregaliir verb he. 

First person, If I he. If we he. 

Second person, If thou he. Ify^ or you he. 

Third person. If he he. If they he. 

Teacher's Questions.— On conjunctions, like those in Lesson XL VI 
On the verb, as in Lesson XL VII. ; also, Why is it in the subjunctive, 
and what is its sign ? 

1. Parse He can go if he choose. Write conj. s. for suhordi* 
nate conjunction. 

^oe, fzz. ft. d. 3(/, n€'?^t. dm-i. 

can ao, v. t. tz. ftot fited, «?. ScC. 

^, com. d. 

ne, fit. fi. d. Sc^, n07n. du^. 

cnoode, 'I/, i'. tz. dum. fized, d. 3c^. 

2. Parse We shall not live long if we live fast. 
8. Parse Others will help us if we help ourselves, 

4. Parse / ivill trust him^ though he shy me. 

5. Parse He ivill give if he have money. 

6. Parse They can go if they choose. 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



63 



7. Parse You can not trust a ivorhman unless he love his work. 
S. Analyze No man can be great unless he toil greatly. Treat 
the adverbial clause like a simple adverb. 



/PTIO/TZ' 


/Cam/ yC^ ^.ieaC 


-- 




'.'--aTi/edd 




J^ 




/ne/ 


^Oi^ 





T^tCi 



9. Analyze No one ivill help us unless we help ourselves. 

10. AnsilyzeWe shall have friends i/ IV e are ourselves friendly. 

11. Parse I shall try again, though I fail again, 

12. Analyze He will judge justly provided his own pocket be 
untouched. 

13. Parse We can have no friends unless loe are o^irselvea 
friendly. 



LESSON FORTY-NINTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 125, 75. J 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PAST TENSK. 

1. The regular verb love, 

SINGULAS. PLURAL. 

First person, If I loved. If we loved. 

Second person, If thou loved, Jfy^ or you loved. 

Third person. If he loved. If they loved, 

2. The irregular verb he. 

First person. If I were. If we were. 

Second person, If thou wert. If ye or you were. 

Third person. If he were. If they were. 

Besides the forms already given, all the foims of all the tenses of tho 
indicative and potential modes are used after the conditional con- 
junctions, and are then called subjunctives. 
Teacher's Questions.— As in Lesson XLVIII. 

1. Parse He would give if he were here, 

2. Parse We should have friends if we were friendly. 

3. Analyze Men would be happy if they were good. 



CA IMPEKATIYE MODE. 

4r. Analyze Me7i ivoidd not worship the sun {fthey knew God 
5. Parse The sunrise icould 

not he beautiful if its 

maker loved not beauty. 
0. Analyze If men ivere 

pure in heart they shoidd 

see God, 

7. Parse Life has been long 
if it has answered life's 
great end. 

8. Analyze Fire is a good 
servant^ but a bad mas- 
ter, 

9. Parse Not ivealth^ but 
contentment.^ makes men 
happy. 

10. Analyze If thou had&t been here my brother would not haoe 
died. 




LESSON FIFTIETH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 75, 9G, II.] 
IMPERATIVE MODE. 

The regular verb love. 

SINGULAR. PLITEAL. 

Love, or love thou. Love, or love ye or you. 

The subject of an imperative is thou^ or you or 7/f, and is oftenest nn« 
derstood. 

The NAME of a person or thing addressed 
is in the nominative case independent. 

Teacues's Questions. — On the verb as in Lesson XL VII. ; al<'o,when 
the verb is in the imperative mode, Wliy ? On the noun addressed, 
W^hy in the nominative ? Rule ? 

1. Parse Run, ,Tohn, Write imp. for imperative^ indep foi 
independent. 

yot-c, fit. fi. fzc. ^ci, no7}i. dtirt, 

2, Parse Come, Sir. 
S. Parse Fear God, 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 



65 



i. Parse Cherish your friends. 

5. Parse Go if you choose, 

6, Analyze Try it again, John, if you fail. Treat a nom- 
inative independent as though it were a co-ordinate 
clause. It is called a quasi-cXaxx^Q. 



-r L 



^' 



x^^a/^. 



y /uoti/^ Tcmm/, 



u/ 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
IB. 
14. 
15. 

IG. 

17. 

18. 

19. 

20. 
21. 

22. 

23. 

24. 
25. 



Analyze /'^ear God and keep His commandmenls. 
Analyze Come, John, and see us. 
Analyze Love your enemies. 
Parse Trust him, and he will trust you. 
Analyze Be courteous to all. 
Analyze Be just and fear not. 
Parse Work, man, or die. 

Analyze Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace. 
Analyze Honor thy fa- 
ther and mother. 
Parse Wa tchman, 
awake. 

Analyze Awake, or you 
perish. 

Parse The sentinel 
sleeps, and ive can take 
the town. 

Parse To-morrow morn- 
ing the city will have 
fallen. 

Analyze Come, friends, 
and help us. 

Analyze yb?« and I are 
good friends. 
Vhv^qWc might have saved the ui. 

Analyze jffe might have had friends if he had been him- 
self friendly . 

Parse Submit, and I ivill save you. 

Write a sentence with an inoperative suggested by the 
picture. 




66 



INFINITIVE MODE. 



LESSON EIFTY-riRST. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 75, 122, 123.] 

The sign of the infinitive mode is to. 

Bidy clare^ do^feel^ havcy heaj\ let^ make, 7ieed^ see^ and some othei 
verbs, are followed by an infinitive without to. 

The regular verb love. 

Present, To love. Perfect, To have loved. 

The infinitive is construed as a neuter noun. 

Teacher's Questions.— I. On ''^He came to jfts/i." Q. — sparse fish. 
(Answer as in Lesson XLVII. as far as the mode.) Q. — Why infini- 
tive? Ans ^It is used as a noun. Q. — Its sign? Anb To. Q.— • 

Its case? Ans. — Objective case and governed by to. Q. — Eule? 
The objective case may be goveraed by a preposition. The infini- 
tive is construed as a neuter noun. 

II. On ''''He begins to toeejJ.^^ Questions as before to the case. Q. — 
What case? Ans — 2h weep is in the objective case and governed 
hy begins. Q. — Rule? Ans. — The direct object of a verb is put in 
the objective case. 

III. On '''•To live is siveef* Questions as before to the ease. Q. — 
What case? Ans. — 2^o Zive is in the nominative case. Q. — Why? 

Ans.— It is the subject of is. Q Kule ? Ans The subject of a 

finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

1. Parse He came tojish. Write inf. for ivfinitive, 

came, v. t. tz. tnc/. hadt, d. Sc/, 

/&, fize^. 
/c'dh, V. €. tea. m^. hzcd. OM, 

2. Parse He begins to wee}), 

veaMid, V. i. tz. ^e/. ^ted. 4-. 3a, 
io f&eeA, V. t. tz. ^/. ^zed. €^. 

3. Analyze He canxe to fish. He begins to iveep. 



aCey 


yca^^^ie^ 




^ 


/^- 





/^%^ 


Y 








^{^^41^1/, 



INFINITIVE MODE. 67 

4. Analyze He is able to icork. To live is sweet. 



.^c^ 



I y^ 



tMT^A^k^ 


ytif ^^m^eU', 



yU'i 



5. Analyze To die is fjain. 

G. Analyze 77iei/ bec/an to srnfj. 

7. Analyze The fire began to burn, 

8. Parse Will you come to see me? 



9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 

IG. 



17. 



18. 

19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 



27. 
28. 
29. 
30. 



Analyze / want to go. 
Parse Shall you go to hear the lecture? 
Parse / hope to go. 
Analyze Learn to icait. 
Analyze He seems to have suffered much 
Parse The cold begins to abate. 
Parse He stops to warm 
his hands. 

Analyze Th e picture 
represents a lazy man. 
He should go to plow^ 
hut he has made a fire., 
anS, stays to warm him- 
self. 

Analyze If he does not 
plow in spring he will 
have to beg in harvest. 
Parse He spreads his 
hands to warm them. 
Analyze Learn to labor 
and to ivait. 
Analyze To die for one!s country is sweet. 
Parse He claims to have taught in Paris. 
Analyze To cease from strife is an honor. 
Analyze Make haste slowly. 
Analyze Run^ John, and rouse him. 
Parse Work, man, or you will starve. 
Write a sentence with a present infinitive about the ] 
in the picture. 

Write one with a perfect infinitive about his hands. 
Write another about his feet. 
Write a prediction about him. 
Write a sentence about the fire. 




68 SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 

LESSON FIFTY-SECOND. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 122, VI.,VII.,77, 78.;J 

The subject of an infinitive is put in the ob* 
jective. 

It is often the same as the subject of the preceding finite verb, and not 
expressed. A quasi-predicate agrees in case with its subject. 

Do, dost^ does^ or did, didst^ and the infinitive after them, are treated 
as one word in parsing, and called an interrogative form, if they 
ask a question ; if not, an EMniATio form. 

Teacher's Question's. — On '-'-IivisJi them to he men.''* Them should 
be parsed as before; also Q. — Why objective? Eule? Ans. — The 
subject of an infinitive is put in the objective. Q. — Parse men, 
Kule? Ans. — A quasi-predicate agrees in case with its subject. 

] . Analyze / wish them to be men. 



J 


yWU^n/ 


- v/ 









2. Analyze / do ivhh him to (jo home. 

3. Parse / bade him (jo. 

4. Analyze Did you hear him sing ? 

5. Parse Mans inhumanity to man makes countless thousands 
mourn, 

G. Parse Let him go, 

7. Analyze Let him live and learn. 

8. Analyze Let us go to help him. 

9. Parse / icish him to learn music, 

10. Analyze What would you have me do? 

1 1 . Analyze Napoleon declared the empire to be peace, 

1 2. Parse We will make them love us. 

13. Parse I see before me the gladiator He. 

14. Analyze / do not rise to ivaste the night in words. Let 

that plebeian talk. 

15. Analyze Head not to find talk and discourse, 

16. Analyze Read to weigh and consider. 

17. Parse I might have let him drown. 

18. Parse Honor thy father and mother, 

19. Analyze You and L are old friends. 

20. Analyze Franklin was a wise and patriotic man. 

21. Parse We should love our enemies and trust our friends. 



PARTICIPLES. 



69 



LESSON^ riFTY-THIIlD. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 63-65, 75, 127, 12S.] 

A PARTICIPLE describes or defines a noun. 

The sign of the present participle is -ing, of the past in regular verbs 
-ED, of tlie compound perfect having. 

1. The regular verb love. 
Present. Past. Compound perfect. 

Loving. Loved, Having loved. 

2. Irregular verbs. 
Being. Been. Having been. 

Taking. Taken. Having taken. 

Selling. Sold. Having sold. 

Teaciieh's Questions. — Parse a participle just as the verb is parsed 
in Lesson XLVIL as far us the mode. Q. — Why is it a participle? 
Ans.— Because it describes a noun. Q. — What noun? The sign? 
The rule? 

1. Analyze He came up^ running. Treat the participle as 
an adjective. 

2. Parse Ccesar, wounded, Jell. 

ef. 3a, 



^c. 



i^aedaz, ^. 



/• 





^^ 


/COMfte^ 




•■ +__. _ 




^ 


A^€^2^l^^^^. 




^^, 



3ci. 



'9- 

/eu, V. t. tt. tna. hadl, d. 

3. Parse He took leave^ 
shaking hands. 

4. Parse / went along, eat- 
ing my roll. 

5. Analyze Alexander^ 
having conquered the 
worlds wept for more 
Ivor Ids to conquer. 

6. Analyze Alexander, 
springing on the back 
of Bucephalus, soon 
tamed him. 

7. Analyze Alexander, 

marching into Asia, de- 
fea ted Darius. Alexander the Great. 

8. Analyze Alexander, 

overcome by intoxication, murdered his friend. 




70 NOM. ABSOLUTE. — ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 



LESSON FIFTY-FOURTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, § 96, 1.] 

The SUBJECT o^ 2i participle^ if free from otb 
er government, is put in the nominative abso* 
lute. 

The nominative absolute and its modifiers make up a suh^ 
ordinate adverbial g-wasi-clause of timc^ cause, condition, or 
accompaniment. 

Similar adverbial clauses with a finite verb may follow 
when, while, before, after, till, since, provided, etc. 

Teacher's Questions. — On '•''She running, he ran.'* Parse she as 

usual to its case. Q Why nominative absolute ? Ans.— It is the 

subject of running, and free from other government. Q. — Rule ? 
What kind of a clause is she rumiing f Ans. — A subordinate ad- 
verbial of time. Q Modifying what ? Ans. — Ban. Henceforth 

in parsing always tell whether subordinate clauses are substantive, 
adjective, or adverbial, and how they are parsed as such. 

1 . Analyze She running, he ran. When she ran, he ran. 



Jie^ 


Aa^ny: 




mi led. 




Jte^ 


^cc^-. 




^ 








^ 






tT^ey A^^^Zi^zc^n^^ 




^ 9rle^. 








'=*= 








irse h 
rrite a 


Te smiling, 
bs. for absc 


she s 
lute. 


^jf^ 


>ta^'}^:. 





3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
IL 

12. 

13. 
U. 
15. 



Analyze One yawning, all yawned. 
Analyze Ccesar having arrived, the army fought. 
Parse When one yawns, all yawn. 
Analyze When Ccesar had arrived, the battle began. 
Analyze While she smiles, he smiles. 
Parse After peace comes, plenty follows. 
Analyze Peace having come, plenty will come. 
Parse His lifo being honorable, he will have honor. 
Analyze Do you wish to have foiends ? Show yourselj 
friendly. 

Analyze Alexander having murdered his friend, dishonored 
his name. 

Parse There is hope while there is life. 
Analyze JBefore plenty will come, peace must come. 
Analyze Having written the letter, I mailed it. 
Parse I shall drown. Nobody will help me. 



VOICE. — THE AUXILIARY BE. 71 

LESSON FIFTY-FIFTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 75, 76.} 

The ACTIVE VOICE represents its subject as 

ACTING. 

The PASSIVE VOICE represents its subject as 

ACTED UPON. 

The sign of the passive is the verb be, with the past par- 
ticiple of a transitive verb. 

The same forms of be with the present participle make 
the PROGRESSIVE forms of the active voice. 

With the past participle of an intransitive verb, am^ art, is, 
are the sign of the perfect active ; and was, wast, were, are 
the sign oi thQ past pey-fect active. 

The regular verb love, 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE PRESENT. 

BINGULAll. PLUUAL. 

1 . / am loved. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. Ye or you are loved. 

3. He is loved. They are loved. 

INDICATIVE PAST. 

1. I was loved. We were loved. 

2. Thou ivast loved. Ye or you were loved. 

3. He was loved. They were loved. 

Teacuek's Questions. — ^Hereafter the voice of all transitive verbpi 
should he given next after calling them transitive, e. g. is loved is a 
verb, etc., transitive, etc., in the passive voice, because it repre- 
sents its subject as acted upon ; regular, because, etc., as in I^esson 
XLVII. Whenever the progressive form occurs, e. g. is lo^i'jic/^ id 
should be asked about. 

1. Parse The good are loved. Write /?a55. iov passive _ 

aooc^, 71. c. c. ^zt. 3(/, nojn. duvi. 

aie w'i/ec/, e<, I. ha^d. zea. tnc/. hied. ht. Sec, 

2. Parse The cruel are condemned. 

3. Analyze Darius was defeated. 

4. Analyze Bucephalus ivas tamed by Alexander. 

5. Parse The letter was written yesterday. 

C). Analyze The earth was created by the word of God. 



72 VOICE. — THE AUXILIAKY BE. 

7. Analyze Washington is remembered with gratitude. 

8. Analyze Our wrong deeds are remembered with regret, 

9. Parse The sun is rising. 

10. Parse We are going to Neio York. 

11. Analyze We were caught in a shower. 

12. Parse We are hoping to visit Washington, 

13. Analyze A sad heart is scon tired. 

14. Analyze Thousands were killed by Ctcsar. 

15. Analyze He is gone to New York, 

16. Analyze He is just come. 

17. Parse They have just gone. 

18. Write a predicate in the progressive form for The sun 

19. Write a predicate in the progressive form for The wind 

20. Write a predicate in the progressive past for The storm 

21. Analyze The stars ivere shining brightly, 

22. Parse Those apples were stolen. 

23. Analyze Thousands are made to mourn by man^s inhu- 
manity. 

2*4. Parse Darius was defeated by Alexander. 

2r>, AnalyzG What is repre- 
sented in the picture? 

2(>. Analyze Who are flying 
thus between earth and 
heaven ? 

27. Parse They are women 
luith wings. 

28. Analyze xire women 
born ivith icings? 

29. Write a sentence Avith 



a progressive present \ 
about the figures in the 
picture. 
£0. Write one with a pas- 
sive singular and a car- 
dinal suggested by the picture. 

31. Write one with a progressive form and an ordinal about 
one of the figures in the picture. 

32. Write one with a passive plural about their wings. 

33. Analyze Angels are seiit to visit us. 
31. Analyze The most secret act is known. 




VOICE. — THE AUXILIAKY BE. 



73 



35. Analyze Wings are made for Jiigftt. 

86. Parse Rhymes are made for pleasure. 

87. Parse Time is flying. 

88. Write a progressive past about George Washington. 

89. Write a progressive past describing an event which took 
place A.D. 1492. 

40. Parse I shall drown. Nobody will help me. 

41. Parse He will drown. I shall not help him. 

42. Analyze Have you heard her sing f 

43. Parse / was going to hear her sing. 

44. Parse She is gone to- get those hoolcs. 

45. Analyze Let her go. 

46. Analyze / do hope to see you soon. 

47. Analyze The ships are _ ^— ^=^ 
wrecked. 

48. Write a progre^i ve verb 
about the sun in the pic- 
tui'e. 

49. Parse Night is coming 
on. 

50. Parse The winds are 
hushed. 

51. Write a passive present 
describing the sea in 
the picture. 

52. Write an active indica- 
tive future about the sea 
in the picture. 

53. Analyze Night having come, a storm will rise. 

54. Analyze The wind is rising. Listen. 

55. Parse Aivake, or you are lost. 

56. Analyze Cojne, friends, and help us. 

57. Parse Be just, and fear not. 

58. Analyze You and L are old friends. 

59. Analyze Bread and butter is good. 

60. Analyze Smith's and Jones's stores were burned, 

61. Analyze / inust see the sight if I can. 
62: Analyze He is going to work. 

63. Parse Love your enemies. Trust your friends, 

64. Analyze L was caught playing in study hours. 

65. Analyze The empire was declared to be peace hy Napo* 
leon. 

66. Parse The noble Brutus is ascended. 




74 PASSIVE VOICE. — RELATIVES. 

67. Analyze The letter ivas ivritten before I came, 
Q^. Parse Those apples were given to me, 

69. Parse He is going to New York, 

70. Parse He is gone to Paris. 

71. Parse She is just come home, 

72. Analyze She iv as going to sink, but I caught her. 



LESSON FIFTY-SIXTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, f§ 75, 112.] 

Eelative pronouns agree with their ante- 
cedents in gender^ number^ and person. 

The RELATIVES who, which^ and that intro- 
duce a clause which describes some noun or 
pronoun, and is called a subordinate adjec- 
tive clause. 

The regular verb love. 

INDICATIVE FUTURE, 

GTNGUT.AR. TLUR-VL. 

1. T shall be loved. We shall be loved. 

2. Thou wilt be loved. Ye or ?/o?i will be loved. 

3. He will be loved. They will be loved. 

In promises, uill is used in the first person, and shall in the second and 
third. 

INDICATIVE PERFECT. 

1. J have been loved. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. Ye or you have been loved, 

3. He has been loved. They have been loved, 

INDICATIVE PAST PERFECT. 

\, T had been loved. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. Ye or you had been loved, 

3, He had been loved. They had been loved, 

INDICATIVE FUTURE PERFECT. 

1. T shall have been loved. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou wili have been loved. Ye or you will have been loved, 

3. He imll have been loved. They will have been loved. 

In promises, irill have is used in the first person, and shall have in the 
second and third. 



PASSIVE VOICE. — RELATIVES. 



75 



Tic.vciiER's QgESTiONS.— On ^^He loho works, wins.'' Q.— Parse ivho. 

Ans. Who is a kelative pronoun; it has he for its antecedent; 

MASCULINE, SINGULAR, 3d, because its antecedent is. Relative pro- 
nouns agree with their antecedents in gender, number, and person ; 
NOMINATIVE case, because it is the subject of works. The subject of 
a finite verb is put in the nominative case. Q — What kind of a 
clause is who wins f Ans. — Subordinate adjective. Q.— AVlint n^un 
or pronoun does it describe'? Ans. — Ue. 
Q.— Rule ? Ans. — The relatives who., which., 
and that introduce a clause which describes 
some noun or pronoun, etc. 

1. Analyze He who worJcs^ wins. He 
whom we love., will love us. 





.-^^W. 


■ 4- 


^-^£<y 


yU/cH^d^ 



31 



.^e^^T^ 



9h4.a^ 



\XA^ yUr^^Ay 





^ 


r^ 


.Co^? 



2. Analyze What is the end for 

which you toil? 
8. Parse He will he droivned. 

4. Parse He shall he drowned. 

5. Parse Help., or I shall he drown- 
ed. 

6. Parse Run., and he will he saved. 

7. Parse At four o'clock he shall 
have been paid. 

8. Parse He found a man who had been ivoundedin the hand 

9. Analyze I, who speak., had a brother, [r. for relative.~\ 

10. Parse Nothing that is base is useful. 

11. Analyze You have been 
honored by all who honor 
virtue. 

12. Analyze A basket of 
summer fruit has been 
gathered. 

13. Parse It shall be eaten. 

14. Parse Those grapes are 
delicious. 

15. Analyze Choose those 
lohich you are most 
pleased with. 

IG. Analyze / went out at 
dawn to gather them. 




76 PASSIVE POTENTIAL. — APPOSITION. 

17. Parse /see the deiv still lying on tliem. 

18. Analyze There are men icho never see or hear^ though their 
eyes and ears are open. 



LESSON FIFTY-SEVENTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 99, 75.] 

An APPOSITIVE agrees in case with its sub- 
ject. 

An appositive is a noun defining another noun which denotes the 
game person or thing. In analysis it is treated like an adjective. 
The noun so defined is its subject. AS is sometimes a sign of appo- 
sition, and treated like a preposition in analysis. It oftcner intro- 
duces a subordinate adverbial clause of manner. 

The regular verb love, 

POTENTIAL PRESENT. 

1. Imay^ can^ or must he loved. 

2. Thou mayest, canst, or must be loved, 

3. He may^ can, or 7nust be loved. 

1 . We may, can, or must he loved, 

2. Ye or you may, can, or rnust he loved, 

3. They may, can, or must he loved. 

POTENTIAL PAST. 

1. I might, could, would, or should he loved. 

2. Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst he loved. 

3. He might, could, woidd, or should he loved. 

1. We might, could, ivould, or should he loved, 

2. Ye or you might, could, would, or should be loved, 

3. They might, could, would, or should he loved. 

POTENTIAL PERFECT. 

1. I may, can, or w.ust have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst, canst, or must have been loved, . 

3. He may, can, or 7nust have been loved, 

1. We may, can, or must have been loved, 

2. Ye or you may, can, or must have been loved., 

3. They may, can, or must have been loved. 

POTENTIAL PAST PERFECT. 

1. I might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

2. Thou mightest, couldst, wouldst, or shoiddst have been loved, 
8. He might, could, would, or should have been loved. 



PASSIVE POTENTIAL. — APPOSITION. 



77 



L^^ceu?; 


.^7M^ 


-e- 


-*^, 


ota^^ 


yu^ii^ 


-i- 


\ 


^ 


Juce<^c^, 



1. We mighty could^ would^ or sliould have been loved, 

2. Ye or you mighty could, would, or sliould have been loved, 

3. They might, could, would, or should Jiave been loved. 

Tkacuek*s Questions. — On '•''Cicero, the orator, must he achidred.''* 
Orator is parsed as before to the case. Q. — Why nominative case? 
A>!S. — It is in apposition with Cicero, Q — Rule ? Ans — An ap, 
positive agrees in case with its subject. 

1. Analyze Cicero, the orator, spoke 
withjluency, 

2. Parse He wlio loves may he loved. 

3. Parse If he had loved he, might 
have been loved, 

4. Parse Galileo^ the astronomer^ 
became blind. Write app.for 
appositive, 

5. Analyze Galileo may be called the Columbus of the heavens, 

6. Analyze Galileo, as an astronomer, declared the tvorld to 
move, 

7. Parse He might have 
been imprisoned Jbr life, 

8. Analyze Jf he had not 
abjured his beliefs, he 
would have been kept m 
prison as a heretic, 

9. Analyze He could have 
been saved if proper ef- 
forts had been made. 

10. Parse Much property 
must have been lost, 

11. Parse The Emperor Na- 
poleon declares his em- 
pire to be peace. 

12. Analyze If thou hadst been here my brother would not 
have died, 

1 3. Parse Our friends should be trusted.. 

14. Parse Our enemies should be loved. 

15. Analj^ze Rome still stands, the Niobe of nations. 

1 6. Parse Strike, as I would have struck those tyrants, 

17. Analyze Washington might have been made a king if hi 
had wished it, 

18. Analyze He had begun to run as fast as he could, 

19. Analyze If he had helped otliers, he would Jiave been, 
helped by them. 




78 PASSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. — IMPERATIVE. 



LESSON FIFTY-EIGHTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 75, 133, 112.] 

The conjanction that, and the pronouns 
WHO, WHICH, and WHAT, often introduce a suh- 
ordinate suhstaiitive clause. 

Such a clause may be the subject or object^ or used adverb- 
ially to denote purpose^ or as an appositive. 

The pronouns in this use are indefinite interrogatives either substantive 
or ftdjectire; that which^ or he who^ him who, etc., may be put for them. 

The regular verb love, 

SUBJUNCTIVE PKESENT. 



PLURAL. 

1. If we be loved. 

2. If ye or you be loved, 

3. if they be loved. 



SINGITLAR. 

1 . If I be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 

3. If he be loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE PAST. 

1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 

2. If thou wert loved. 2. If ye or you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

Besides these forms, all the forms of the indicative and potential modes 
are u-ed after the conditional conjunctions, and are then called sub- 
junctives. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Be thou loved. Be ye or you loved. 

The subject is often omitted. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Beincj loved. Past, Loved. 

Compound perfect. Having been loved. 

Teacher's Questions. — Parse vihat as a substantive or adjective pro- 
noun. Parse the clause carefully, giving its government as thoug^b 
it were a noun or adverb. 

I saw that he wept. 



1. Analyze / 


see what it is. I 


J, 


jO^c^y 






^UmyCX/^^' 


^ 



J' 


A<:iuf 


jdgU> 






m^- 


^w<Ai^. 



INFINITIVES. — PARTICIPLES. 79 

2. Analyze What is right is expedient. 



M^ 


X^ /uan^^ 




yC^ j2/:fo^cice^ny6 . 



3. Analyze Go that you may see. It is true that he died. 





^ 


(r"') 






- 4naC 


r 


/mcviJ/A^^^ 





Sb 


AA AlW 




- 


^tnat 




Jc 


mew. 





4. Analyze / know who he is. I saw who it was, 

5. Analyze If he were cauyht^I could tell who he is, 
G. Analyze Go slowly^ that you may go surely, 

7. Analyze I know that he has been seen. 

8. Tarse All ivish to be loved. Few are loved, 

9. Analyze All hope that they may be loved, 

10. Parse What is right is expedient, 

11. Analyze This is to be taken^ having been iv ell shaken, 

12. Analyze If he had not been so dearly loved^ he could not 
have been so deeply hated, 

1 3. Parse / knew that he was going, I saw him start, 
H. Parse He claims to have 

been taught in Paris, 

15. Analyze Casca will tell 
us what the matter is. 

16. Analyze He who is out I 
of debt is out of danger, I 

17. Write about the picture 
a sentence containing a | 
masculine noun. 

18. Write one containing a ] 
superlative — a demon- 
strative. 

19. Write one containing a I 
personal pronoun — a 
possessive. 

20. Write one with a copulative verb — a transilive verb 

21. Write one with a potential present — past. 




80 INTERJECTIONS.— INDEPENDENT ADVERBS. 



LESSON FIFTY-NINTH. 

[Fowler's Common School Grammar, §§ 90, 130, 134.1 

An INTERJECTION is a word which may 
stand for a clause, representing some emo- 
tion. 

Such are 0, ah^ Zo, ha^ psJiaiv^ alas, ivoe, etc. 

Some INDEPENDENT ADVERBS Stand for 

CLAUSES. 

Such are t/cs, yea^ no, nay, and sometimes indeed, verily, really^ welly 
why, etc. 

An interjection or independent adverb 
has the syntax of a clause. 

It may stand for the predicative combination of a sentence, a leading 
clause, or a subordinate substantive clause, and may be followed by 
an objective with or without a preposition. 

Teacher's Questions. — I. On ^^ lie muymured. Oh !" Q What is 

ohf Ans. — An interjection. Q — Why? Ans. — It stands for a 

clause representing some emotion. Q What emotion? Ans. — 

Suffering. Q. — Can you give a clause meaning the same thing? 
Ans. — I suffer. Q. — What is its syntax? Ans. — It is an exclama- 
tory subordinate substantive quasi-clause, the direct object of mur' 
mured. Q. — The rule? Ans. — An interjection or independent ad- 
verb has the syntax of a clause. The direct object of a verb is put 
in the objective case. 

II. On '-'-Will you gof Yes, I think so." Q— What is yes^ Ans.— 
An independent adverb. Q. — What clause does it stand for? Ans. 
— I will go. Q. — What is its syntax? Ans. — It is a declarative 
quasi-clause, co-ordinate with the clause in which think is the verb. 



1. Analyze ( 


9, let me 


go. Cry Oh 


! 






f 


^ 


{^cu>j 


\i 


4y 


(^) 


Y 








^9/tC yiK 






.1. _. 



2. Analyze He groaned, Alas ! 

3. Analyze He chuckled, Ha. 

4. Analyze Will you aing f Yes, 

5. Parse The poet sighed, Ah me! 

6. Analyze The seer cried, Woe unto you ! 

7. Analyze Napoleon used to shrug his shoulders, and cry 
Chut! chut ! 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



81 



LESSON SIXTIETH. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



1. Write five nouns, names of things in the school-room. 

2. Write five nouns, names of things which you saw as you 
were coming to school ; and write a cardinal number 
with each. 

3. Analyze I saw hventy robins. 

4. Parse I saw a hundred blackbirds. 
h. Analyze / see tJiefiowers appear, 

6. Write the feminine of king^ lion^ master, priest, 

7. Write the masculine of girl, mother, lady, 

8. Parse A lady is never noisy, 

9. Analyze Let boys be boyish, 

10. Analyze / teach him Greek. Make us men. 



^ /C&CLCn/ 



J{(m€y (^^OU/) 



Ac/m/ ijAeeyK^, 



-^ 



ud mieTV. 



] 1 . Analyze Let me go. 

12. Analyze Let me shape a figure of marble, 

13. Analyze Let me ivork 
out feature after feat- 
ure of a god. 

14. Write and analyze five 
sentences, each having 
the verb let and the 
plural of one of these 
words : scidptor, man, 
brother, ox, child. 

15. Parse Who is there ? It 
is I. 

1 6. Parse It is she. It is he. 

17. Write as many nouns 
as you can which have 
no singular. 

1 8. Write as many nouns as you can of the common gender. 

19. Write as many nouns as you can whose plural ends in 
-en. 

20. Analyze All that glitters is not gold. 

21. Analyze His fingers are all thumbs. 




82 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISER 



22o Write as vaanj plural nouns as you can whose first Towei 
is different from that of the singular, 

23. Analyze The poet is born, not made. 

24. Analyze I was asked, What is best? 



JT 



.'^C^^Od 



cmxt^ .-cd .-O^,'^. 



25. Analyze 1 was ashed a hard question, 

20. Analyze Thales was ashed, What is the hardest thing 't- 

27. Analyze It is hard to die. To hnow thyself is hard. 




28. Analyze Thales said, To hnow one's self is hard. 

29. Analyze What is the hardest, and what the easiest things 
SO. Analyze It is the hardest thing to despair, the easiest to 

hope. 
31. Analyze When a gentleman is ashed a question, he answers 

courteously. 
^2. Analyze and parse Wlun Thales was ashed what is the 

hardest thing in the icorld and what the easiest, he an- 
swered, The hardest is 

to hnow oncHs self and 

the easiest to find fault 

with the acts of others. 

33. Parse The Arabs dwell 
in tents. 

34. Parse We will build no 
houses. 

35. Parse Ye shall dwell in 
tents. 

36. Write a sentence about 
the tent in the picture. 

87. Write a sentence with 
a copulative verb about 
the tree in the picture. 




MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



85 



38. Write one with a progressive form about the horses. 

39. Analyze Right means straight. 



o^Z^f^C^ 


y?7Le^Z^97J 


Y 








J^Uuh^^. 



^0. Analyze Wrong means twisted. 

41. Analyze Transgression means going beyond. 

42. Analyze Fortnight means fourteen nights. 

43. Analyze The upright man stands straight up. 

44. Parse Supercilious means raising the eyebrows. 

45. Parse Gipsy means Egyptian. 

46. Analyze Virtue means manliness. 

47. Analyze Vinegar is the son of wine. 

48. Analyze The scholar's mother tongue is his true foster^ 
mother. 

49. Analyze The last feather broke the camels back. 

50. Analyze This man is worth millions. 



/TnOyTU 



31 



M 



K^/<n^ /??l^CCCC077J. 



Price, value, measure, and time are often in the objective 
a preposition. — Fowler's Common School Grammar, ?§ 

51. Analyze This book is 
worth a dollar. 

52. Parse This book cost a 
dollar. 

53. Analyze To reign is 
worth ambition. 

54. Analyze This room is 
twenty feet long. 

55. Analyze The house should 

be forty feet high. 

56. Analyze Imbecile means 
leaning on a staff. 

57. Parse The good honor 
the aged. 



without 
98, 132. 




84 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



58. Analyze Those boys are worth nothing, 

59. Parse He died six years ago. 

GO. Analyze The Declaration of Independence was made the 
fourth day of July, 1776. 

61. Analyze Ainerica was discovered the eleventh day of Octo- 
ber, 1492. 

62. Analyze I might have gone to town this morning. 

63. Analyze The train ran forty miles an hour . 

64. Write a sentence with green used attributively. 
^o. Write one with green used predicatively. 

i^{^. Write one with the comparative of bad. 

67. Write one mth the comparative of good. 

68. Analyze A merry heart goes all the day. 

69. Analyze The general said, Up, boys ! 



/C€^^z^la/' 



Mzi^j 



^' 




y^^f 



70. Analyze His father said, Right, my son. 

71. Analyze His father heard him cry. 

72. Analyze and parse Diogenes saw a youth blush, and said 

to him. Right, my son; that is virtue's proper hue. 

73. Analyze A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

74. Analyze To laugh is better than cry, any day. 

75. Analyze To ^tudy without pen in hand is to dream. 

76. Analyze Make hay while the sun shines. 

77. Analyze Look at nature without the spectacles of boohs, 

78. Analyze Good eyes are better than glasses. 



xy^ 



:£. 



yoA^e/ y^£ytteyiy 



tyyoaoL/ 



/6Aam/ 



/O^aJ^f^eJ 



(ctA^e/). 



79. Analyze ''''Know thyself" was inscribed on the temple a\ 

Delphi. 

80. Analyze Love thyself last. 

81. Analyze If thou seest aught amiss in another; mend it in 
thyself. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



85 



82. Write a sentence with an intransitive verb about the ship 
in the picture. 

83. Write a sentence with 
three adjectives de- 
scribing the sea. 

84. Write an address to the 
ship. 

85. Write a sentence with 
two ordinal numbers 
suggested by the pic- 
ture. 

8G. Analyze Speak truth. 
87. Parse Flatter no man, 
S^. Parse Make no compar- 
isons, 

89. AxidlyzQ Look before you 
leap, 

90. Analyze Give not ear to tale-hearers. 

91. Analyze There was a castle called Douhtitig Castle, 




/CO 



3L 



X€HX^ 



/oa^^ecO ^Uiyt^.u/ly7i^ 



*loi€^ 



92. Analyze The owner of Doubting Castle was called Giant 
Despair, 

93. Analyze Those shoes are worth a dollar, 

94. Analyze Think no place without a witness, 

95. Analyze Bread and butter is good. 

96. Analyze Scorn no man^s love. Love is a present for a 
mighty king. 

97. Analyze Nelson said., ^^ Kiss me, Hardy, ^^ and he died, 

98. Analyze Fear not that which can not be avoided. 

99. Analyze Grieve not for that which can not be recalled. 

100. Analyze Meddle not with other men!s matters. 

101. Analyze He, getting up early, took a walk. 

102. Analyze By great deeds show that thou canst little do, 
and do them not. 

103. Analyze 

T-jCt thy mind's siveetness have his operation 
Upon thy body, clothes, and habitation. 



86 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 



104. Analyze There was a castle the owner whereof was a 
giant. 






^^CC^Xld 



^ 



/0<.a^z&iy 



'wr: 



4^ 



±1 



^^CCHXJ 



^MmM-ec^ 



T 



3: 



c>z!u/?2y \y<HV^ 



105. Analyze Good thoughts are hut good dreams unless they 
are acted. 

106. Parse A rolling stone gathers no moss, 

107. Analyze Run like a deer. 

108. Analyze Do all things like a man, 
not sneakingly. Think the king sees thee 
stilly for his king does. 

109. Parse '' Who is there f '' William, Sir.'' 

1 1 0. Analyze " What are you doing f " Noth- 
ingj' 

\\\ . Analyze The sun shineth night and day. 

1 12. Analyze It was here that we slept. 

113. Parse The pilgrims were gone over the En- 
chanted Ground. 

114. Analyze We saw the city which ice were 
going to. 

] 




/Cte 



e&lA 



3E: 



115. Analyze Here are fields 
as green as any. 

116. Write a sentence about 
the herd in the picture. 

117. Write a sentence about 
the trees in the picture. 

118. Write a sentence about 
the water in the picture. 

110. Analyze The waters 
glide like h appiness 
away. 

120. Analyze JTere they saw 
the flowers appear. 

121. Analyze 

Affect in all about thee cleanliness, 

That all may gladly hoard thes^ as a flower. 

122. Analyze Man is God's image; hut a poor man is Chrisfs 
stamp to boot. 




MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 87 

1 23, Analyze To die for one^s country is sweet. 
l24:o Parse He ivill be drowned if no one helps Mm. 

125. Analyze Then with a surly voice he asked them whence 
they were, and what they did in his grounds. 

1 26. Analyze Let us go to help him. 

127. Analyze Read not that you may fvad talk. 

1 28. Parse Two times one are two. Two is two times one. 
120. Analyze Napoleon having come ?//>, the battle began. 

1 30. Parse Hope having been lost, all is lost. 

131. Analyze Washington was equally great as a general and 
as a statesman. 

132. Analyze I saw ivhat was ivanted; but, ah 1 too late. 

133. Parse Art is long and life is short. 

134. Analyze We live in thoughts, not years. 

135. Analyze A book is what ive make it to ourselves. 
13G. Parse Every change must have a cause. 

137. Parse and analyze Noic there was not far from the place 
where they lay a castle called Doubting Castle, the owner 
whereof was Giant Despair, and it was in his grounds they 
now were sleeping ; wherefore he, getting up in the morn- 
ing early, and walking up and down in his fields, caught 
Christian and Hopeful asleep in his grounds. Then icith 
a grim and surly voice he bade them awake, and asked 
them whence they ivere, and what they did in his grounds. 
They told him they were pilgrims, and that they had hit 
their way. Then said the giant. You have this night tres- 
passed on me by trampling and lying on my ground, and 
therefore you must go along ivith me. 

138. Parse and analyze Now I saw in my dream that by this 
time the pilgrims were got over the Enclianted Ground; 
and entering into the country of Beidah, whose air was 
very sweet and pleasant, the way lying directly through it, 
they solaced them therefor a season. Yea, here they heard 
continually the singing of birds, and saw every day the 
fiowers appear in the earth, and heard the voice of the 
turtle in the land. In this country the sun shineth night 
and day; wherefore it was beyond the Valley of the Shad- 
010 of Death, and also out of the reach of Giant Despair ; 
neither could they from this p)ldce so much as see Doubting 
Castle. Here they were in sight of the city they ivere go- 
ing to ; also here met them some of the inhabitants thereof, 
for in this land the Shining Ones commonly walked, bc" 
cause it was upon the boi'ders of Heaven. 



88 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

139. Analyze Courtesy costs nothing. 

140. Analyze Soine have entertained angels unawares, 

141. Analyze Angels^ visits are few and far between. 

142. Parse Coming events cast their shadows before, 

143. Analyze and parse Sir Isaac Newton drew close to the 
grate in which a fire had just been kindled. By-and-by 
it grew very hot. He rang the bell. The servant came. 
^''Talce away the grate^^^ said the philosopher^ '^ before I 
am burned to death.^^ ^'' Had you not better draw back 
your chair ^ sir,^^ said John, ivaggishly. " Upon my word^'^ 
said Sir Isaac ^ laughing^ " I had not thought of that." 

144. Analyze It is vain to try to keep a secret from one who 
has a right to know it, 

145. Analyze Fool not ; for all may have, 

If they dare try, a glorious life or grave. 

146. Analyze Nelson said, Before this time to-morrow 1 shall 
have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey. 

147. Analyze and parse 

Lives of great men all remind us 

We can- make our lives sublime. 
And, departing, leave behind us 

Footprints on the sands of time ; 
Footprints, that perhaps another, 

Sailing o'er lifers solemn main, 
A forlorn and shipwrecked brother 

Seeing, shall take heart again. 

Let us, then, be up and doing, 

With a heart for any fate ; 

Still achieving, still pursuing. 

Learn to labor and to wait. 

lik Analyze and parse 

.My life is like the prints which feet 

Have left on Tampans desert strand; 
Soon as the rising tide shall beat. 

All trace will vanish from the sand. 
Yet, as if grieving to efface 
All vestige of the human race. 
On that lone shore loud moans the sea^ 
But none, alas ! shall mourn for me. 



THE END. 



<4>. 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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